
n™ L B I d> I S 

OFFICIAL DONATION. 



FREE 
HIGH 
SCHOOLS 



OF WISCONSIN 



ptamtal, 1894, 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

RECEIVED 

.01 

DIVISION OF DOCUMENTS. 



SECOND EDITION, (Revised) 

OLIVER E WELLS, 

State Superintendent. 



MANUAL 



FREE HIGH SCHOOLS 



WISCONSIN. 



SECOND EDITION, (Revised) 

OLIVER E WELLS, 

State Superintendent. 



189^. 



MADISON, WISCONSIN: 

DEMOCRAT PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTER. 
1894. 



\ 






INTRODUCTION. 



This Manual is intended to aid in interpreting the laws 
relating to free high schools; to furnish information re- 
garding their establishment, organization and management 
and to offer suitable suggestions as to the scope and char- 
acter of the instruction in such schools. 

In this, the second, edition the work has been thoroughly 
revised and rearranged in accordance with the experience 
of the office and suggestions received from many critics. 

Part I contains general suggestions and the courses of 
study; Part II comments on tne courses and suggestive 
methods of teaching; Part III, the laws under which the 
schools are organized and maintained. 

The paragraphs of the Manual are numbered consecutively 
in order to facilitate cross references. Frequent refer- 
ences are made to the Manual of the Elementary Course of 
Study for Common Schools by use of the initials and the 
number of the paragraph as: C. S. M., 14. 

In the index the references are to paragraphs. 



PART I. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 



ORGANIZATION. 



1. In organizing and establishing a school the following 
steps are necessary: 

1. The boards of supervisors of towns, the boards of 
trustees of villages, the common councils of cities, or the 
district boards of school districts shall submit the question 
of establishing such a school to the legal voters in the form 
of a written resolution. 243. 280. 281. 

2. An affirmative vote by ballot, at a regular or specially 
called meeting of the legal voters of the town, village, city 
or school district, upon the adoption of the resolution sub- 
mitted. 243. 

3. A canvass of the votes in the same manner as other 
votes by the municipality are canvassed, and a certification 
of the result of the vote. 243. 

4. An election of a high school board, except in cities 
and in villages or districts having a school of not less 
than two departments. 251. 

5. An examination of the pupils to determine whether 
there are twenty- five residing in the high school district 
prepared to take up a high school course. 

When a school is ready, the high school board should 
notify the state superintendent under whose supervision 
the examination will be conducted by the high school in- 
spector. 

The questions will be based upon the work proposed by 
The Manual of the Elementary Course of Study for Common 
Schools. 13-22. 255. 

6. The adoption at a regular meeting of the high school 



Courses of Study. 5 

board of a course of study and the approval of the course by 
the state superintendent. 252. 273. 

7. An inspection of the school and its appliances. 

8. The approval of the qualifications of the teachers — 
273. 255- 65. 

2. When these preliminaries have been satisfactorily 
completed the state superintendent will issue a certificate 
of establishment. 

COURSES OP STUDY. 

3. The superintendent has prepared several courses of 
study. The first, a Three Years' Course, should be 
adopted without change, in schools of that rank, and the 
order of the branches should be maintained as presented, 
though a transposition of Arithmetic and Book-keeping, 
with Algebra is allowed. 

4. Four other courses are also presented, each of which 
is preparatory to the course of the same name in the state 
university and is fully approved and recommended by that 
institution. Where but one course is maintained, the English 
must be adopted. If another is to be selected, it should be the 
General Science or Modern Classical. Where the teaching 
force is sufficient either or both of the other courses may be 
added. However, none but the first may be adopted alone, 
and no one of the other three except in connection with 
the first. 

More of our free high schools could well afford to pro- 
vide thorough instruction in Greek as well as Latin. 

5. In order thoroughly to understand these courses they 
should be studied carefully in connection with the com- 
ments under the different branches of Part II. of this 
Manual. 

These courses have been widely adopted with little 
modification and have given general satisfaction. 

6. The Three Years' Course may be administered by the 
principal alone. No Four Years' course will be approved 
for any locality unless there is in the school at least one 
qualified assistant, who devotes all his time to the high 
school. 



Courses of Study. 



COURSES OF STUDY. 



PREPARED BY THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT. 



7. THREE YEARS' COURSE. 6. 



FIRST YEAR. 



First Term. 



English Grammar. 30. 
Physical Geography. 91. 
Algebra. 3. 



Second Term. 



Composition. 
Physical Geography. 
Algebra. 

Literary Readings. 



Third Term. 



Composition. 

Botany. 

Algebra. 



SECOND YEAR. 



First Term. 



U. S. History. 201. 
Botany. 
Arithmetic. 3. 



Second Term. 



TJ. S. History. 
Physiology. 
Bookkeeping. 180. 

Literary Readings. 



Third Term. 



Constitutions. 202. 

Physiology. 

Arithmetic. 



THIRD YEAR. 



First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


General History. 

Physics. 

Plane Geometry. 


General History. 

Physics. 

Plane Geometry. 


General History. 

Physics. 

Theory and Art. 152. 273. 



Literary Readings. 



Courses of Study. 



FOUR YEARS' COURSES. 



8. ENGLISH AND GENERAL SCIENCE. 4. 5. 6. 
FIRST YEAR. 



First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


English Grammar. 30 
Physical Geography. 91. 
Algebra. 172. 


Composition. 
Physical Geography. 
Algebra. 


Composition. 

Botany. 

Algebra. 



Literary Readings. 



SECOND YEAR. 



First Term. 



Botany. 

U. S. History. 201. 

Arithmetic. 172. 



Second Term. 



Physiology. 
U. S. History. 
Bookkeeping. 180. 
Literary Readings. 



Third Term. 



Physiology. 
Constitutions. 202. 
Arithmetic. 



THIRD YEAR. 



First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Plane Geometry. 


Plane Geometry. 


Soltd Geometry. 


History. 203. 


History. 


History. 


Political Economy 


Word Analysis or German. 


Rhetoric or German. 


or German. 







Literary Readings. 





FOURTH YEAR. 




First Term. 


Second Term. 

English Literature. 

Physics. 

Reviews or German . 


Third Term. 


English Literature. 

Physics. 

Mental Science or German. 


English Literature. 

Physics. 

Theory and Art 

or German. 152-27 3. 



Literary Readings. 



8 Courses of Study. 

9. MODERN AND ANCIENT CLASSICAL. 4. 5. 6. 

N. B — These are to be used only in connection with the 
English Course. In case either is adopted, it may be nec- 
essary in order to save recitations, to transpose Geometry 
and Arithmetic-Bookkeeping, in the English and General 
Science Courses, placing the former in the Second Year. 
Then one term of the Third Year Arithmetic should be, in 
the English and Scientific Courses, devoted to Algebra 
and Geometry. This is the more logical arrangement. 

FIRST YEAR. 



First Term . 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


English Grammar. 30 
Physical Geography. 
Algebra. 172. 


91. 


Latin. 

Physical Geography. 

Algebra. 

Literary Readings. 


Latin. 

Botany. 

Algebra. 


SECOND YEAR. 


First Term . 


Second Term. 


Third Term . 


Latin. 

United States Hist. 

Plane Geometry. 


l 334. 
(201. 


Latin . 

United States History. 
Plane Geometry. 

Literary Readings. 


Latin. 

Constitutions. 202-234. 

Solid Geometry. 


THIRD YEAR. 


First Term . 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Latin . 

History. 203. 
German or Greek. 


Latin. 
History. 
German or Greek. 

Literary Readings . 


Latin. 
History. 
German or Greek. 



Records. 

FOURTH YEAR. 



First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Latin . 

Physics 

German or Greek. 


Latin. 

Physics . 

German or Greek. 

Literary Readings. 


Latin. 

Physics. 

German or Greek. 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS. 

10. The high school board should be careful in choos- 
ing teachers, and should not enter into contract with any- 
one not possessing legal qualifications. 273. 255. 265. 

RECORDS. 

11. Boards should provide for the high school two rec- 
ord books sufficiently large to serve for several years. In 
one which may be in form like the following, should be 
kept the term or semi- term standings: 



Arithmetic. 


Grammar. 


History. 






75 

88 


83 


T8 


98 

83 


79 


86 


(-8 
85 


84 


83 


• 


A. B. 




C. D. 

































































12. The other should record final standings only and may 
be ruled as follows : 



Name. 



J. S. 



Arith. Gram. 



83 



Hist. 



These books should be frequently examined because upon 
the accuracy with which they are kept will depend the 
power of the board to comply with the provisions of the 
law relating to certificates for graduates. 279. 



10 Admission. 



STANDARD OF ADMISSION. 



13. The standard established at the examination for or- 
ganization must not be lowered after the establishment of 
the school. The minimum standard of admission to all the 
free high schools of the state will be The Course of Study 
for Common Schools. If pupils who have not completed this 
course are received and taught by the teachers in the high 
schools, a pro rata deduction will be made from the amount 
reported as expended for instruction in the high school de- 
partment. This may mean a reduced apportionment of 
state aid. 255. 268. 

.l-i. The following is a summary of the course laid down 
in The Manual of the Elementary Course of Study for Common 
Schools and will assist in determining the requisites for 
admission to the high schools. However the closer study 
of that Manual will indicate more clearly the force and 
meaning of this summary. To facilitate consultation refer- 
ences to that publication are inserted. 

BEADING. 

15. The pupil should have acquired: 

1. Ability to read intelligently and with good expression 
any selection in the Fourth Reader. 

2. Ability to give a clear statement of the meaning, to 
define the words used, and to explain the allusions. 

3. Ability to modulate the voice at will in stress, vol" 
ume, pitch, rate, inflection and quality. 

4. Ability to recite well choice selections of prose and 
poetry equal to six pages of the reader. 

5. Ability to use the dictionary intelligently. (C. S. M. 
49.) 

SPELLING. 

16. The pupil should spell correctly through force of 
habit whatever he writes. He should have the habit of 



Admission. 11 

consulting the dictionary in all doubtful cases. He may 
fairly be tested by his spelling in examination papers, by 
a list of words, not less than fifty in number, promiscu- 
ously arranged, and by his ability to apply the principal 
rules of spelling. (C. S. M. 228.) 

WRITING. 

17. The pupil should have the ability to write legibly, 
neatly and in good form. (C. S. M., 248.) 

GRAMMAR. 

18. The pupils should be able: 

1. To give clear and grammatical expression to their 
thoughts orally or in writing, and to use capitals and 
punctuation marks correctly. 

2. To use a vocabulary sufficient to express their thoughts 
with precision. 

3. To construct sentences using correctly the forms of 
nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs suggested in the out- 
line of work. 

4. To separate easy composition into component sen- 
tences, and sentences into principal and modifying ele- 
ments, and to apply rules of construction. (C. S. M., 83.) 

GEOGRAPHY. 

19. The pupil should be able: 

1. To read maps readily. 

2. To sketch in outline each of the continents, and to 
state approximately, their relative size, using Wisconsin 
and the United States as units of measure. 

3. To give the system of water-partiugs and drainage 
slopes of each continent. 

4. To locate and tell something about any land or water 
form, city, or other point of interest included in the course 
of tracing lessons. 



12 Admission. 

5. To describe important areas of production, especially 
those of our own country. 

6. To draw from memory, and with a fair degree of ac- 
curacy as to detail, a map of Wisconsin. 

7. To comprehend clearly the system of reckoning stand- 
ard time; also the method of surveying public lands, with 
its practical applications. 

8. To show by means of diagrams or drawings the course 
of constant and of periodic winds and of ocean currents, 
and to explain the causes and effects of the same. (C. S. 
M. 216.) 

ARITHMETIC. 

20. The pupil should show: 

1. Ability to analyze problems involving applications of 
Percentage indicated in the course of study, problems in 
proportion, and in Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids 
where geometrical formulas are not employed. This anal- 
ysis should show a logical train of thought properly ex- 
pressed. 

2. Ability to indicate by arithmetical symbols the opera- 
tions necessary to the solution of problems in the classes 
mentioned above. 

3. Ability to extract square and cube roots by some one 
method and to give an explanation of the process used. 

4. Ability to state original practical problems of the va- 
rious classes indicated in 1, and to solve them. 

5. Skill in writing the various kinds of business forms 
in common use, and in performing by short methods the 
computations required in ordinary business transactions. 

6. Ability to define arithmetical terms used, and to state 
rules for performing operations. 

7. Accuracy and rapidity in performing the work re- 
quired above are essential requisites for completion of the 
work of this Form. (C. S. M., 172.) 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

21. The pupil should be able to give the general struct- 
ure of the principal organs of the body, their chief func- 



Outbuildings. 13 

tions and the well established laws of health with intelli- 
gent reasons for following them. (C. S. M., 265.) 

22. It is expected that both history and constitutions 
will have been studied before the pupil enters the high 
school. It is a difficult matter to make a summary of the 
preliminary work that should be done in those branches 
and so reference is made to The Manual for Common Schools. 

History. (C. S. M., 271-280.) 
Constitutions. (C. S. M., 281-297.) 

OUTBUILDINGS. 

23. On the 29th of May, 1894, a circular letter was sent 
by the State Superintendent to Principals and School 
Boards from which the following sentence is taken: "I 
have determined to withhold state aid from such high 
schools as shall not maintain suitable, clean privies of am- 
ple size and so situated as to be no offense to decency nor 
to health." 268. 

24:. At an earlier date a circular upon school architecture 
was issued and from it the following is extracted : 

25. "The construction and care of privies is a difficult 
part of school management. Much has been written and 
said about it, but the utterly repulsive condition of most of 
these necessary conveniences shows that the progress in 
this matter has been very slow. Nevertheless the inter- 
ests of life, health and decency demand that the struggle 
should be continued. The following rules ought to be 
rigidly observed in their construction : 

1. They should be private, that is, masked or screened 
from observation. A row of Balsam fir or Norway spruce 
planted between the privies and the road will make an ef- 
fective screen in a few years, and will add greatly to ths 
beauty of the place. 

2. They should be separate, out of sight and out of mind, 
each from the other. 

3. They should be well lighted and well ventilated. 

4. They should be constantly supervised and kept clean. 

26. The last rule can be obeyed only by constant and 



14 Outbuildings. 

discreet vigilance. It will impose on teacher or janitor 
duties that are always unpleasant and may sometimes seem 
to be indelicate, but the abhorrent condition of school 
privies demands that almost any sacrifice be made to save 
children from the mental and moral degradation incident 
to daily contact with indecency. 

27. Generally a little plain talk to the boys will secure 
the co-operation of the well-disposed. With their aid, vig- 
ilant care on the teacher's part will beget a sentiment that 
will restrain the thoughtless. 

28. These outbuildings should be plainly, but substan- 
tially built; they should be raised at least one foot above 
the ground, and placed on substantial foundations. Inside 
walls and ceilings should be covered with matched boards, 
and on the last coat of paint sand should be sifted to pre- 
vent marking. These buildings should be separated into 
compartments by board partitions six feet in height. In 
the boys' privies urinals should be provided discharging 
into the vaults, and in each privy at least one seat should be 
provided so low that young children may occupy it and still 
rest the feet on the floor. The receptacle for excrements 
should be made water tight, so that no portion of them can 
be filtered into the ground. Vaults may be of brick 
with brick floors, extending one foot beyond and in 
the rear of the building. The vault floor should slope to- 
ward the rear to facilitate cleaning, and the projection of 
the vault should be closed by a tightly fitting door, hinged 
to the house and secured by a lock. From the vault a 
tight wooden flue, six inches square, should extend above 
the roof and in the rear of the building for ventilation. 
The contents of the vault should be frequently covered 
with dry earth or dry wood ashes, and the vault should be 
cleaned in vacation and thoroughly disinfected. A cheap 
and effective disinfectant may be made by dissolving chlo- 
ride of lime in water, using one pound to a gallon of water. 
This maybe used to disinfect urinals, and if sprinkled occa- 
sionally over the floors of outbuildings and then washed 
off, will help to render their condition tolerable." 



PART II. 



SUBJECTS AND METHODS. 



LANGUAGE. 



ENGLISH. 

29. In the administration of any well regulated course 
of study few branches can be considered as isolated. 
Each study must be viewed in the light of those that pre- 
cede and of those that follow. A wise principal then, 
will study the work of one branch in its place in the 
group and will see that no time is wasted in fruitless repe- 
tition and that in the separate branches no phases of im- 
portance are left unexamined. In fact, the proper corre- 
lation of studies throughout the course is the one task 
that devolves absolutely upon the principal and the fidel- 
ity with which he discharges this duty will be in a large 
degree the measure of his success. 

30. English composition, grammar, word analysis, rhet- 
oric, English literature and literary readings form a 
group of studies in which the work must be continuous. 
A few underlying principles govern the teaching of all 
and the domain of one encroaches broadly upon that of an- 
other. The aims of all are to secure a ready and fluent 
use of both the spoken and written language and at the 
same time to open the mind to the powerful influences ex- 
erted by books. 

31. Here, as elsewhere, it is assumed that the pupil en- 
ters the high school prepared fully on the work in The 
Manual for Common Schools. It has been repeatedly claimed 
by critics of the high schools that graduates could not 
comply with the professed requirements for admission. If 
then, some pupils have entered the school with inadequate 



English. 17 

preparation the difficulty should be removed by special 
exertion with these personally. Composition work should 
be continued, -oughout the course, but it should be of so 
varied a nature as never to sacrifice the interest of the 
class or fall into the domain of pure drudgery. 

32. Before the formal study of Rhetoric and as a pre- 
requisite to graduation from every course, all pupils should 
be able: (1.) To write moderately difficult sentences 
of all kinds. (2. ) To write clear and correct letters — let- 
ters of friendship and letters of business. (3.) To write 
simple exercises in narration and description in a becom- 
ing style. (4.) To apply the rules for punctuation and 
capitals. (5.) To use the common figures of speech, as, 
the simile and the metaphor; and also to observe these 
principles on the printed page. 

The following on Composition and English literature, 
taken from an article by O. F. Emerson, is full of valua- 
ble suggestions and should be read and frequently con 
suited by every teacher of English. 

COMPOSITION.* 

33. "The power of expression comes only by practice 
and training. The teacher's work is in one direction, 
supervision, inspiration. Every recitation should be in 
some sense an exercise in English. Recitations should 
not be mere statements in set forms of facts learned, but 
an interchange of thought. The pupils real knowledge 
can be expressed in words fully his own. Training of es- 
pecial value may be obtained in translation, and to acquire 
a clear, pure, vivid, English rendering is to enrich the 
pupil's vocabulary and ensure some appreciation of liter- 
ary form. * * * 

34. Of the four classes of prose — description, narration, 
exposition, argument— the first two only will be much used. 
The best training will come from treating simple subjects 
in a simple manner. In the selection of subjects the pupil 
should have some choice, and the teacher a definite super- 
vision. These will be secured by giving for the exercise 

*Copyright, 1889, by George A. Bacon. 

This essay and the following on English Literature are reprinted from 
The Academy of June, 1889, by special arrangement with Mr. Bacon. 



18 English. 

five or six subjects, of which each pupil chooses one. 
Later he may be given the privilege of selecting his own 
subject, after conference with the teacher, who should be 
sure the pupil has reason for his choice and ability to 
treat it. Subjects selected should appeal to the pupil's 
interest, or an interest may be given them by explanation 
and suggestion of the teacher. * * * 

35. Directions as to treatment of a subject are neces- 
sary, for training in expression should be training in think- 
ing also. A pupil cannot be expected to know how to con- 
struct for himself. His whole habit of text-book study is 
opposed to this, and he must be guided to the use of his 
thinking power. In description he must be taught to se- 
lect a point of view, to treat the various parts in a natu- 
ral order, to describe each part completely before taking 
another. Where no natural order presents itself, a plan 
must be selected, or the pupil taught to arrange his mate- 
rial in proper relations, after writing as thoughts present 
themselves. Outlines of subjects should be presented in 
such variety as to allow individuality of treatment. A 
helpful plan is to suggest treatment of a similar subject by 
some good writer, not to be followed implicitly, but to 
stimulate thought. For the subject, a day at the circus, 
the pupil might be referred to the play in the first chap- 
ters of Pendennis, or for a winter scene to some descrip- 
tion of autumn by John Burroughs. Details of prepara- 
tion demand the most explicit directions. 

36. The best way to secure neatness and care is to re- 
quire uniformity of paper, to insist on margin at the left, 
on using but one side of the sheet, on properly indenting 
the paragraphs, and on folding in a particular man- 
ner with name and subject in proper place on the out- 
side. 

In correcting exercises the aim is helpful criticism by 
the teacher, and intelligent remodelling by the pupil. 
Both are equally important, unless the latter takes prece- 
dence. It should not be forgotten that criticism includes 
encouragement as well as fault-finding, since it is better 
not to correct everything at once than to discourage the 
pupil. The best results come from reading each essay with 
the pupil, explaining the reason for changes. Otherwise 
some simple method of suggesting changes is desirable, as 
symbols for common errors in syntax, spelling, capitals, 
punctuation, paragraphing, ambiguity, irrelevancy. In all 
cases changes should be made by the pupil, the exercises be- 
ing re-written in whole or part if necssary. Certain errors 
of construction may be criticised with the class, and special 
attention should be given to the inflectional forms in our 
language, particularly the possessives, of nouns, the pro- 
nouns and strong verbs. The proper use of will and shall, 



English. 19 

ivould and should, requires repeated explanations, as do 
similar verb forms, lie and lay, sit and set, and the double 
preterites of a few verbs. One should not insist on a minute 
nicety, as a substitute of a polite word for a homely but 
proper term; * * niceties in punctuations only found 

in books on the subject. All these belong to a school- 
master's dialect, and would pervert rather then assist the 
child's English. The standard language is that of culti- 
vated people, not that of the school-master. * - * * N or 
should criticism be merely verbal or syntactical. The unit 
of the essay is the paragraph, and to paragraph well is 
one of the best results attainable in any school. Pupils 
will at first make no paragraphs, or each sentence will 
stand alone. The relations of the parts of an object 
described to the divisions of the essay may be noticed, 
and rearrangement in paragraphs should be required when 
necessary. Other common mistakes are lengthy introduc- 
tions and abrupt endings. The first is usually due to lack 
of plan, the second often to imperfect arrangement. Sj^m- 
metry in form, even to the exclusion of unnecessary mat- 
ter, though often neglected, is most important in its rela- 
tion both to correct expression and to right thinking. 

37. The forms of descriptive composition are so numer- 
ous that there need be no lack of variety. Description 
of objects, places, events within the pupil's experience, 
comes first but there is so great variety that interest will 
depend on the teacher's selection. It is essential that the 
subject be something real to the pupil, as a game of ball, 
a visit to a neighboring village, a manufacturing estab- 
lishment, a week at the farm. Next come subjects less 
closely associated, selected with reference to sources of 
information. Composition will thus have a definite rela- 
tion to reading good books and knowledge of literature. 
History, travel, biography, fiction, descriptive and nar- 
rative poetry will contribute. A definite reference to a 
particular chapter or article may be made with such sub- 
jects, as the siege of Leyden in Motley's Dutch Republic; 
Westminster Abbey in Irving; the chariot race in Ben Hur. 
If biography be chosen the pupil's thought should be di- 
rected to an impression of the man, not merely to dates 
and events. Subjects enlisting the imagination may be 
selected, as an imaginary journey, the life of a former 
time, and short stories of adventure or entertaining in- 
cident. 

38. A most valuable form is the paraphrase' or repro- 
duction of another's ideas in the pupil's own words. Care 
should be taken that paraphrasing be not so minute as to 
prevent freedom of expression. Its main object is to test, 
not whether the pupil has obtained all the ideas of a poem 
or sketch — something unusual with readers of experience — 



20 English. 

but whether he can state clearly what he has obtained. The 
minute prosing of poetry might prevent a right conception 
of poetic, as distinct from prose form, but this will not 
preclude the selection of such subjects as the story of Enoch 
Arden or Evangeline, of Portia in Merchant of Venice, or 
the trial of Warren Hastings in Macaulay. It will be well 
occasionally to require the reproduction of a story or sketch 
from a single reading by the teacher, as a training in at- 
tention. Another excellent exercise is to require pupils 
to write in class, upon some subject chosen beforehand 
usually, occasionally at the time. A definite time is al- 
lotted, as five or ten minutes, in which the pupil is asked 
to write clearly and concisely what he can. * * * 
Pupils may be allowed to contribute news items, reports of 
entertainments, of lectures, even book reviews, editorials, 
speeches, under direction and suggestion of the teacher. A 
school paper, read once a month, will encourage originality 
and show some surprisingly good results. * * * Bright 
pupils occasionally write good parodies or descriptive 
verses, and while the difference between verse and poetry 
should be clearly kept before them, some truer ideas of 
verse forms may be obtained than from, the ordinary study 
of prosody. A form of composition too little regarded is 
letter writing, and some practical training in this belongs 
naturally to composition work. Good form without the ex- 
treme minuteness of books, neatness and care of details, 
may well claim a place and may help to revive an art more 
useful than any other, but sadly neglected many times. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 

.39. The study of English literature has been much 
misapprehended. The greatest mistake is to suppose it a 
memory study of literary biography, with an occasional 
poem or fragment of prose. The root of the evil is in con- 
ceiving literary study as one of mere facts — of biography, 
history, philogy. * * * A great poem or a prose mas- 
ter-piece is the embodiment of a personality. That per- 
sonality can be known only through the medium of sympa- 
thy. To develop this sympathy, this sensitiveness to the 
true and beautiful in a work of genius, is the aim of a true 
teacher. Only in this way is "conversing with the truth 
of things" possible. No process is more destructive to 
this development of sympathy than the dissecting method. 
Analysis has its place, but synthesis is even more neces- 
sary. The union of the soul with truth is not affected by 
the process of pulling sentences asunder limb by limb, and 
assorting the members in piles of verbs, nouns, phrases. 



English. 21 

The spirit of literature is not susceptible to the scalpel of 
the pettifogging grammarian. * * * Nor is the study 
of literature the study of history. Much of it has little 
historic connection. Only those historic facts that have a 
necessary and vital connection with literature add materi- 
ally to the study. This is true also because literature in 
its essence does not belong to single epochs. It is so true 
to man and nature that it is not "of an age," but for all 
time. The study in our schools does not require a com 
plete or comprehensive view. It will scarcely be best to 
take anything before Shakespeare, and it would be quite 
impossible to take up all the representatives of a single age. 
The right thing is to develop a true appreciation of the 
best English prose and poetry. 

40. It will be necessary then to study single works of 
the best writers. There is abundance of material in cheap 
editions, with or without notes. * * * In any case the 
pupil should study literature, not annotations, and judg- 
ment rather than memory should be enlisted always. Each 
lesson should be anticipated, points of interest indicated, 
relative value of notes, methods of preparation. Class 
work will vary with different teachers and at different 
times, but some suggestions from experience are made in 
the following: 

41. Beading. The way to know Shakespeare is to read 
him, said Richard Grant White, and Dr. Johnson recom- 
mended reading without regard to minor details or diffi- 
culties. This applies in some sense to all literature. 
Every short poem should be read through at the start for 
completeness of view. This may be done out of school or 
partly in class, and there need be no fear that pupils will 
lose interest in further study. Besides, there should be 
much reading in class, even if it excludes some more tech- 
nical study. Such reading is not to be elocutionary, but 

"clean, clear, simple, quiet voicing of sense and meaning. " 
This is the method of many most eminent teachers in our 
country, and it will prove itself a rare means towards 
accomplishing the great object of literature in education, 

"to open the mind, to correct, to refine it." 

42- Study of Personality. Literary study is on an au- 
thor's "embodiment of thought," of his personality, his 
clearness of conception, his skill in narration and illustra- 
tion, his imaginative power, his mental grasp. What is 
his idea of duty and conduct, of human society, govern- 
ment, religion? How does he interpret nature? Are his 
men and women real flesh and blood? Is his view of life 
elevating? * * This vital life of the writer may not be 
revealed by a single work. Others may be suggested to 
be read in class or by pupils at home; so that while a sin- 
gle production is studied systematically, others will be 



22 English. 

read appreciatively, helping to reveal the writer's charac- 
teristic attitude. 

43. Character Study. Many poems not strictly dramatic 
lend themselves to this study by exhibiting personal 
action and play of motive in some interesting phase. But 
character study belongs to the drama preeminently, and to 
Shakespeare as the great dramatist. Various plans will 
lend interest. A principal character may be assigned each 
student, for special study in reference to several important 
questions. In this it is important that the pupil's judg 
ment be allowed ample freedom. * * * Interest in a 
single character may lead some to underestimate the im- 
portance of others and this must be corrected by the study 
of the drama as a whole. 

44. The Ethical Element. Much will be beyond pupils of 
any school, but the vital connection of great thought and 
great action, of high aspiration and high endeavor, of 
right ideals and right conduct, will suggest something more 
than pleasure as the end of literary study. The suggestion 
is of something far different from moralizing, something 
more real and lasting — an enthusiasm for beauty in life, as 
in art for fair forms, as for harmony of numbers. The 
method should be unobtrusive, and is best suggested by 
Arnold, the great teacher, in the aim expressed in his his- 
tory, "to be of use to the cause without actually bringing 
it forward." 

45. Nature Study. We attribute to the poet a peculiarly 
vivid appreciation of nature, and we ought to gain from 
him a keener observation of the world about us. The poet 
emphasizes effects by representing nature in intimate 
sympathy with man. The interpretation of nature meets 
us in the poets, and the suggestion of it will be appreciated 
by pupils, when it cannot be studied completely. 

46. Textual Study. The study of syntax and diction is 
not of first importance, but it has a place. How does a 
poem differ from prose? A pupil's attention will be at- 
tracted by words new to him or peculiar in meaning. 
Poetry preserves old forms, obsolete and rare words and 
uncommon constructions. A play of Shakespeare will show 
peculiarities of Elizabethan English. These require sim- 
ple explanation, and will lead to the use of the dictionary 
as a standard for comparison. The life of words — not sci- 
entific etymology — will interest pupils if the study is made 
suggestive, rather than exhaustive, by attractive word 
studies. Skeat's Etymological Dictionary (student's series) 
and Trench's Study of Words (new edition), most stimu- 
lating books, are in reach of every teacher. * * 
Textual study should be used so far as it is a healthy 
stimulus and a corrective of inaccurate understanding. 
The old method of parsing and analyzing a book of Para- 



English. 23 

dise Lost may have been beneficial, but it kept pupils 
from appreciating the great English epic. 

4?. Literary form. This ought not to suggest one of the 
dreariest subjects — prosody. Simple verse forms of poems 
actually read ought not to be uninteresting. The pupil should 
see how the rhythmical accent emphasizes the thought, and 
indicates the pronunciation of an unknown worr 1 . The 
nature of the lyric as distinct from narrative or dramatic, 
the constitution of the sonnet, the elegy, the epic, form 
proper studies. Alliteration and various forms of rhyme 
may be pointed out, but not as the essentials of poetic 
form. Poetry is the concrete embodiment of thought and 
feeling. Its language is not direct but figurative. The 
study of this figurative language, without technical details, 
is better than text-book rhetoric. Poetry has a language 
of its own. becoming a natural language to the reader only 
by continued acquaintance. Minute anal}- sis robs it of 
some of its most delicate charms. We should seek to com- 
prehend poetic speech, in all its compactness and concrete- 
ness of expression, without the medium of prose. 

48. Prose. This is more often neglected .in school 
courses than poetry. It is more difficult to teach it well, 
owing to its greater diffusiveness and the less obtrusive 
charm of its construction. But great efforts should be 
made to create a taste for pure prose for its practical 
value, and to preclude pleasure in weak and sensa- 
sational forms. * * * A habit of reading may be soon 
begun, taste cultivated, and the pupil become capable of 
selecting with appreciation only the best books. Young 
people will become interested first of all in fiction. On ac- 
count of length, tales and sketches will be first used. These 
will lead to longer works, as those of Scott and Dickens, 
but fiction alone should not engross attention. Interest 
may be easily excited in travels, in important historical 
epochs, in biography, eloquence, essays. * * * While 
interesting books are selected always, preference should be 
given to those that belong enduringly to our literature. If 
contemporary books alone are used, most pupils will never 
know the treasures of the past. 

49. A small body of prose can be read in class. Se- 
lections should stimulate interest in reading, not as a task 
but from choice. Pupils need help over the uninteresting 
places. * * * A teacher may indicate portions to be 
omitted, sum up others, and start the reader where he will 
be certain to go on. Selections may be made of prose and 
poetry treating the same subjects. * * * Class work in 
prose will differ somewhat from that in poetry, because of 
fewer peculiarities of expression; but there will be new 
words, embellishments as in poetry, and many allusions to 
be explained. Examples will constantly occur illustrating 



?A English 

principles in rhetoric. Practice in writing should go hand 
in hand with all work in literature The number of sub- 
jects will allow each to choose those of special interest. 
* * * The pupil should keep permanently something from 
each work read. Passages may be memorized by all, and 
each pupil may select lines of special interest to himself. 
These will serve as touch- stones to test the value of all ex- 
pression. The pupil should record such passages in a book 
for that purpose, thus making an invaluable collection, and 
one that may furnish many a thought not wholly devoid 
of vitality in his life. 

50. The best teaching is that which is wisely suggest- 
ive. Many poets, not adapted to school use, have written 
single poems of great interest to young people. * * * 
Similarly suggestive are the celebration of authors' birth- 
days, and programs of patriotic poems, poems of the sea, 
of interesting places, of notable historical events. This 
is studying literature from the outside, but it has its ad- 
vantages. 

51. The suggestion of many methods would be confus- 
ing if it were necessary to use a considerable number at 
one time. Every good teacher knows no plan is likely to 
be less beneficial. Teacher and pupil should have a defi- 
nite aim in the study of each work, and the aim should 
not be manifold. At one time the aim may be textual 
study, at another rhetoric, at another poetic form, besides 
always the spirit, the personality, the central idea. The 
work may be divided into parts in which special forms of 
study are taken up. But in all cases the definite aim sys- 
tematically carried out, while not preventing proper vari- 
ety and incidental treatment of many subjects, will event- 
ually give the best results. 



52. English literature, as mentioned in the course, may 
be considered from a somewhat different point of view. 
It comes after the pupil has made an acquaintance with 
the history of his own nation and that of the world, after 
he has written and read, has studied rhetoric and civics, 
and has acquired that maturity of mind which will enable 
him to appreciate literature as a study; yet, even in this 
last year, it is not desirable that much time should be 
given to study about literature. Some knowledge of its 
history is essential; some knowledge of the different pe- 
riods and the characteristics of each should be acquired, 
but each period should be studied in connection with the 



Readings. 25 

works of the men who gave the characteristic tone to that 
epoch. 

53. Before Chaucer, there is little that can be found 
profitable reading, and to him little time should be given. 
But the history of the times, the growth of the language 
and the strange mixture of elements that came in to form 
it, will prove profitable and interesting and will relate 
themselves closely to the historical studies of previous 
years. Later periods will not be fully understood unless 
the influence that continental nations exerted upon the 
English be studied. Though the tongue was formed and 
English was the language of its writers, yet the Italians, 
upon Shakespeare and Milton, and the French, upon Dry- 
den and Pope, produced a most profound effect. Here 
again the history of literature relates itself to the history 
of nations. So that this year's study may be made a 
chain which binds together many of the isolated incidents 
with which the pupils have been previously acquainted. 
If a large portion of the reading done in the several 
grades has been from the authors of modern times, it will 
now be possible to devote a larger portion of this year to 
the writers of middle English. 



LITERARY READINGS. 

54. Appended are two lists of books which are recom- 
mended for use under the title of "Literary Readings" in 
the several courses. The first is for those schools in 
which the three years' course only is used. These lists 
should not be construed as arbitrary, for in many cases 
material is so plentiful that it is possible that other good 
books will be more accessible. However, no course in read- 
ing has been recommended as preparatory to collegiate in- 
stitutions during late years that has not included most of 
the titles mentioned below. It will be found that the four 
years' list includes the works which the advanced require- 
ments of the state university make necessary in future 



26 Headings. 

preparation. An attempt has been made to balance the 
work well and to arrange the books somewhat in order of 
difficulty, with the idea that they will, in the year in 
which they are placed, be interesting to the pupil reading 
them. It is quite possible that many of the selections and 
some of the books have been read in the grades below and 
that it will not now be desirable to repeat them. Under 
such circumstances, a wise substitution may properly be 
made. 

55. These are all books which it is well to read in class 
with the teacher. A list of books for reading at home 
should be made. By occasional papers from the pupils or 
by conversation with them, the principal may obtain defi- 
nite knowledge as to the quantity and value of the reading 
that his students are doing upon his suggestion. 

56. It is intended that the reading should be continuous 
throughout the course. This does not imply daily recita- 
tion, but that possibly two or three times a week, as cir- 
cumstances may justify, the class shall meet and study to- 
gether some good English classic. It may not at all times 
be convenient to separate the classes of the different 
years. It may be found that all the pupils of the school 
can be grouped in one or two sections without special ref- 
erence to their position in the other studies of the course 
for it frequently happens that all the poor readers are not 
in the lowest class. By the time of their graduation, how- 
ever, high school pupils should have an acquaintance with 
the books mentioned in the list. 

Elsewhere under the title of "English Literature" (39, 
41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 51), will be found some valuable sug- 
gestions which are applicable, though possibly in a lesser 
degree, to this reading work. 

Pancoast's Introduction to English Literature (Henry Holt & 
Co.) is an admirable working handbook for teachers and 
students. It is an expansion of the historical and critical 
portions of the author's Representative English Literature. 



Headings. 



27 



57. THREE YEARS COURSE IN LITERARY READINGS. 
FIRST YEAR. 

The Great Stone Face — My Visit to Niagara, Hawthorne. 

Grandmother's Story— The Chambered Nautilus, Holmes. 

A Christmas Carol — The Cricket on the Hearth, Dickens. 

An Elegy in a Country Churchyard, Gray. 



SECOND YEAR. 

The Deserted Village— The Traveler, 

The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers, 

The Merchant of Venice, 

To a Mouse— To a Mountain Daisy — For 'a that, 

Enoch Arden, 



Goldsmith. 
Addison and Steele. 
Shakespeare. 
Burns. 
Tennyson. 



THIRD YEAR. 



Vision of Sir Launfal — Books and Libraries, Lowell. 

Gettysburg Speech, Lincoln. 

Julius Csesar, Shakespeare. 

Second Essay on the Earl of Chatham, Macaulay. 



58. FOUR YEARS' COURSE IN LITERARY READINGS. 

The first and second years are identical with those of 
the Three Years' Course. 



THIRD YEAR. 



Poor Richard's Alrnanac, Franklin. 

Julius Caesar, Shakespeare. 

Vision of Sir Launfal — Books and Libraries, Lowell. 

Gettysburg Speech, Lincoln. 



FOURTH YEAR. 



The First Bunker Hill Oration, 
The Second Essay on the Earl of Chatham, 
Behavior, or the American Scholar, 
L'Allegro, II Penseroso, Comus, 



Webster. 
Macaulay. 
Emerson. 
Milton. 



28 Grammar. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

59. The justification for this branch in a high school 
course of study is its utility in promoting skill and ele- 
gance in the use of the mother tongue. Coming, as we as- 
sume pupils do, well grounded in the elementary princi- 
ples of composition, there should be offered them an op- 
portunity for the mastery of the important rules and prin- 
ciples of technical grammar. The aim in the instruction 
should be to secure a thorough knowledge of these princi- 
ples and their application, without descending into the 
petty details with which our text- books are crowded. 
When teachers learn to discriminate in the use of the ma- 
terial that the books present, pupils will gain clear ideas 
in place of the confusion of half-related thoughts that now 
fill their minds. English is not a dead language whose 
grammar is fixed and unchangeable, but a living, growing 
tongue. Rules should be taught inductively, and then ap- 
plied until their use is wholly clear, If the rules are com- 
prehended and can be applied, the observations and ex- 
ceptions will take care of themselves. Much of the minute 
classification in the grammars and many of the fine dis- 
tinctions are for reference only and any attempt to learn 
them serves but to befog the mind and conceal essential 
ideas. Peculiar constructions, knotty problems in analy- 
sis and fine discriminations are usually uncalled for. 

60. Teach the pupil to recognize in common construc- 
tions the parts of speech and to know their principal 
properties. Teach him to consider the structure of his 
sentences and to justify their arrangement. Do this in 
practice and see to it that the pupil understands the mean- 
ing of every rule he is asked to learn. The book presents 
the rule bolstered by a few examples. It is the teach- 
er's duty to see that the rule appears in new lights, that 
abundant new illustrations are furnished and to continue 
his work not only till the pupil can use the rule, but until 
he does use it regularly and intelligently. 



Grammar. 29 

61. In parsing use no set formula for every word in the 
order of its appearance till tiresome iteration wearies and 
disgusts the pupil. But parse solely for the purpose of 
seeing the word in all its relations to other words in 
the sentence. Analyze logically first, that the meaning 
may be clear, and then grammatically till words, phrases 
and clauses take the position and rank the author intended. 
Be careful to select the best examples to be found in the 
wide field of literature. Written parsing and analysis are 
valuable if not carried to the point where they seem a 
drudgery. Grammar would be interesting were it not for 
its apparent obscurity and the wearisome labor connected 
with it. Diagram occasionally, as a variation from regu- 
lar routine, but the diagram is not an end and many a pu- 
pil has been able to put his refractory parts of speech into 
the pens so ably built without any idea of the real meaning 
of his labor. Real sentential analysis should be as fasci- 
nating as the solution of a problem in mathematics and it 
will become so if we lay aside the refinements and subtle- 
ties of the too critical method together with the monotony 
and drudgery of useless repetitions. That the study of a 
foreign language helps the pupil to a readier and clearer 
understanding of his mother tongue is evidenced by the 
greater facility with which Latin students master English 
grammar. 

63. Finally, the term is too short and it comes too 
early in the course to give the best results, but the objec- 
tions to placing it elsewhere seem to be insurmountable. 
Its intimate relation to Composition will justify its con- 
tinuance farther than the limits of the term and a good 
teacher will find abundant opportunities throughout the 
course in all branches to see that the laws are not forgot- 
ten nor suffered to fall into disuse. 



Rhetoric. 



RHETORIC. 

64. The purpose of high school instruction in Rhetoric 
should be to put the pupil in possession of an art — the art 
of expressing himself in writing clearly, forcibly, and ele- 
gantly. But every art is acquired by practice, and prac- 
tice is therefore of the first importance at every stage of 
the instruction. Rules and directions are of no value save 
as they serve to guide practice, and to learn them without 
at the same time applying them in abundant exercises is to 
waste both time and energy. ******** Th. e 
most important caution is to avoid trying to carry the 
work too far. High schools ought not to attempt an ex- 
tended study of Rhetoric. Their aim should be to fix firmly 
in the habits of the pupils the most essential practical 
principles of effective composition, leaving the refinements 
of criticism for subsequent study. 

Any good text may be followed, but the real aim of the 
work should be ever kept in mind. 

65. For a term's work in Rhetoric following the drill 
whose results are summarized in a previous paragraph the 
following outline may be suggested. 

66. THE AIM. 

I. To have pupils understand the construction of sen- 
tences, paragraphs, and themes. 

II. To exercise the pupil in composition by instruction: 

1. As to selection of subject. 

2. As to collection of material. 

3. As to mode of inventing and distributing mat- 

ter in a clear and logical form. 

III. To make an elementary study of style through 
practical exercises in clearness, imagery and energy. 

IV. To prepare pupils to study models in connection 
with the various rhetorical principles and forms, that they 
may see a relation between practice and precept. 



Bhetoric. . 31 

67. THE WORK. 

I. In Invention: 

1. Construction of simple and compound sentences 

and of complex sentences with adjective, ad- 
verbial, and noun clauses. 

2. Formation of paragraphs. 

3. Analysis of essay subjects. 

4. Preparation of frameworks for essays. 

II. In Qualities of Style: 

1. Clearness — 

(a) As to mastery of subject. 

(b) As to use of words, whether repu- 

table, national, and present. 

2. Figures of Speech — the simile, metaphor, per- 

sonification, antithesis, metonymy, etc. 

3. Energy. 

4. Elegance. 

68. REQUIREMENTS. 

A pupil should be able 

(a) to make a framework of an essay within his 

powers ; 

(b) to begin to forming the habit of canvassing a 

subject, of reading reflectively upon it, of 
investigating it systematically, of extracting 
essential facts and setting them forth effect- 
ively ; 

(c) to develop his theme; 

(d) to make a fair rhetorical analysis of a passage 

from a standard author, indicating all the 
elements of clearness, imagery, and energy. 



32 Latin. 



LATIN. 



69. The course should include four books of Caesar, 
which should be completed by the end of the second year, 
seven orations of Cicero and six books of Virgil. If Cicero 
be begun before Virgil the latter might be read after four 
orations and then be followed by the remaining three ora- 
tions. 

70. For the first work in Latin it is desirable to place 
in the hands of pupils as concise and simple a statement 
of the first principles as possible. Therefore great care 
should be used in the selection of a text, of which there 
are maoy good ones. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

71. The correctness of the pupil's pronunciation of 
Latin will depend upon the accuracy of the teacher's pro- 
nunciation, quite as much as in the study of French or Ger- 
man. It is too often true that the only attention given to 
this subject is the memorizing of the rule that the penult 
is accented, if long, otherwise the anti-penult receives the 
accent. Even this rule is constantly violated in practice 
and accents such a' micus, effer' o, an' tiquus, etc., are com- 
monly heard. Not only should most careful and persever- 
ing attention be paid to penultimate quantity, but the 
quantity of every vowel, when it can be ascertained, should 
be observed in pronunciation. 

FORMS. 

72. The necessity of a thorough acquaintance with the 
forms of the language is so obvious that it would seem 
superfluous to call attention to it here. Yet the fact is 
that no part of Latin preparation is more defective than 
this. The forms as contained in the lesson book or as re- 
ferred to in the grammar must be mastered absolutely 
Well-directed memorizing, followed by written exercises, 
dictation, oral practice and frequent reviews, ought to pro- 
duce good results. 



Latin. 33 

INTRODUCTION TO READING. 

73. A good class with a good teacher ought to finish a 
lesson-book in time to do some work preparatory to Cae- 
sar in the first year; for in most cases the transition from 
an elementary book to Caesar is too abrupt. If Csesar is 
to be read immediately the teacher must exercise great 
diligence in anticipating the difficulties of the advance les- 
son and in striving by every means to make smooth the 
somewhat uneven path. The second book of Csesar is 
easier than the first. The conference report to the "Com- 
mittee ; of Ten" recommends the use of some easy read- 
ing such as Gradatim, Eutropius or Viri Romae, for this tran- 
sition period. 

74. The purpose of this study, as pursued in the high 
school, is not to make pupils skillful in writing Latin, but 
to enable them by use to make the forms and syntax of 
the language more completely their own. The composi- 
tion of a single Latin sentence, illustrating certain con- 
structions or idioms of the language, will do more to im- 
press these upon the mind of the .pupil than half a dozen 
parsing exercises involving the same points. Latin com- 
position may be pursued by devoting one or more exer- 
cises of each week exclusively to this work; or, by means of 
daily exercises based upon limited portions of the Latin 
read in class. 

75. This method has the advantage of securing a more 
painstaking daily review than can usually be obtained 
otherwise. It does not, however, cover the ground com- 
pletely; for many special grammatical pit-falls do not oc- 
cur often in the text of Csesar or Cicero. Special drill, 
therefore, is required in exceptional cases. The imper- 
sonal construction in the passive of verbs followed by the 
dative, conditional sentences in indirect discourse, the in- 
dicative in the conclusion of conditions contrary to fact 
with verbs of duty, necessity, etc., and the periphrastic 
forms are constructions of the kind referred to. This me- 
thod of teaching Latin composition will require untiring 

3 



34 Latin. 

zeal on the part of the teacher and great economy of time 
in the class-room, but it will be rewarded usually by great 
interest. 

76. In all instruction in Latin the pupil should be made 
to realize that the order of the Latin sentence is flexible, 
subject to considerations of emphasis and euphony. What 
the pupil positively learns about Latin order must depend 
on what the teacher knows or feels concerning it, for it 
cannot be learned from rules. Some good hints for the 
teacher are contained in the revised Latin Grammar of 
Allen and Greenough, p. 386 h. 

TRANSLATION. 

77. An exact and idiomatic rendering into English of 
the thought of a difficult Latin sentence is perhaps the 
chief visible result of Latin instruction, and teachers 
who are not working to secure that end have in a measure 
lost sight of the goal. Literal translations are often indis- 
pensable by way of explanation and for purposes of illus- 
tration, but if they are not at the same time idiomatic, they 
should always be accompanied by idiomatic renderings. 
"Translation English" is not only painful to hear but it 
destroys the linguistic sensibility which all instruction 
should foster and gives most grotesque conceptions of 
Roman literature. 

Not only should good English be insisted on always, but 
some effort, varying with the maturity of the class or of 
the individual pupil, should be made to produce the style 
of the author translated. The succession of Latin authors 
read in school is all that could be wished in this regard. 
The straightforward narrative style of Caesar may be re- 
produced without difficulty by pupils who have not read 
much in English. In connection with Cicero, translations 
may be improved and made more spirited by bringing out 
some characteristics of oratorical English, with examples 
from speeches of American orators. Milton and Spenser 
studied in the high school ought to contribute to better 
translations in Virgil. 



Latin. 35 

FORM AND SUBJECT MATTER. 

78. The Latin authors read in the high school afford a 
considerable field for the study of literary form and histor- 
ical events. This should not be neglected. For example, 
in Cicero the pupil should be required to analyze the argu- 
ment of the speeches read and thus to obtain some con- 
ception of the form of an ancient oration. It is a good 
plan to call on some member of the class each day to give 
orally a synopsis of the review or advance lesson, and at 
the conclusion of any work the argument should be care- 
fully read, so that each pupil shall carry away a definite 
idea of the work as a whole, both in respect to form and 
contents. Every high school library should be provided 
with a copy of Froude's Caesar, Trollope's Cicero and Sel- 
lar's Virgil (Macmillan) — the last perhaps more especially 
for the teacher. By judicious reference to them much can 
be done to stimulate and maintain a living interest in the 
men whose works are read. 

79. Two pamphlets by Professor William Gardner Hale 
entitled "Aims and Methods of Classical Study," and "The Art 
of Reading Latin" (Ginn & Co.), will be found stimulating 
and suggestive. The Art of Reading Latin sets forth admir- 
ably the only natural and rational method of studying a 
Latin sentence, and even if the teacher does not attempt 
to put into practice all the suggestions there given, a careful 
study of the paper will do much to give him a truer con- 
ception of the way in which Latin is to be read and there- 
fore to be taught. 



36 German. 



GERMAN. 

80. The time allotted to German in the high schools of 
this state is now two years. This time is sufficient for the 
following course of study: 

1. Correct pronunciation. 

2. The essentials of grammar and the ability to apply 
them. 

3. Acquisition of a vocabulary sufficient to enable pupils 
to read and translate the reading lessons in any standard 
reader correctly and understandingly. 

4. Practice in the oral use of German in connection with 
the reading lessons. 

5. The memorizing of some German poems. 

6. The careful study of at least two plays (Der Neffe als 
Onkel, Minna von Barnhelm, Die Journalisten, etc.,) 

PRONUNCIATION. 

81. i is pronounced like i in it and like the finishing 
sound of e in he; e, long, similar to English ay (pay), 
short, like English e (set). There is no difference what- 
ever between "short e" and "short ae;" ch (ich) with soft 
palatal sound, not ish nor ik (Kir-che =church; Kir-sche=- 
cherry); final g as a continuant ch; j distinctly buzzed y in 
y es; y==f; w=v in very; z = ts (the t and the s closely con- 
nected, but both pronounced stronglg and distinctly); ini- 
tial sp and st = schp and scht, in the middle and at the end 
of words =sp and st; th always =t. All final syllables 
must be clearly pronounced. Words mispronounced should 
be analyzed by sound and not by letter. Ex. — Geldbeutel 
is mispronounced. Teacher: Give the first syllable; the 
second; how is eu pronounced? How do you pronounce 
the second syllable? the third? read the whole word again! 
how many words? first? second? translate "Beutel!" (Refer- 
ence book: Wm. Vietor, German Pronunciation, B. Wester - 
mann & Co., New York.) 



German. 37 



GRAMMAR. 



82. The following points of grammar should be empha- 
sized during the first and second terms of the first year. 
The meaning of the different cases and their correspond- 
ence with the English; the declensions of nouns, with the 
definite and indefinite articles and words declined like them, 
of nouns with qualifying adjectives, with and without the 
articles (or words declined like them), of the personal pro- 
nouns; the comparison of adjectives; principal parts and 
conjugations of verbs; subjunctive and indirect discourse; 
the prepositions; order in sentences; and the leading prin- 
ciples of syntax. 

83. Special attention should be called to the following: 
die guten, and diese, jene, meine, etc., solche, welche, alle, 
keine guten Bucher; and gute, and einige, etliche, wenige, 
manche, viele, einzelne, mehrere, andere, verschiedene 
gute Bucher; der (ein) Franzose,Dane, etc., but der Deutsche, 
ein Deutscher, wir (uns) Deutsche, etc. The pupils should 
first understand the English should and would, shall and 
will, may and can, etc., on and upon, in and into, etc., the 
modal t auxiliaries ; the difference between "he was here" 
and "if he were here," etc., and then the German equiva- 
lent should be explained and drilled. The ideas of place 
and motion, etc., should be developed and then practiced; in 
answer to the questions whither? how long? until when? 
the accusative, in answer to the question where? when? 
the dative is used after certain prepositions; when motion 
is conceived as having direction, a starting point, or a goal 

"sein," when only activity within a given space is thought 
of "haben" is used. The subjunctive is the mood of unreal- 
ity, contingency, possibility; after glauben, meinen, den- 
ken, etc., behaupten, sagen, lehren, etc., when used in the 
third person present and the subjunctive is necescary, 

er fragte mich, wo sie wohne (not: wohnte), gewohnt habe, 
wohnen werde, etc. ; er fragte mich, ob wir mit ihm gingen, 
etc). 

84. (Reference books: Brandt, Grammar of the German 



38 German. 

Language, Boston, Allyn & Bacon; Lyon, Handbuch der 
Deutschen Sprache, Leipzig; Teubner; Heyse, Deutsche Gram- 
matik, Hanover, Hahn.) 

VOCABULARY. 

85. Pupils should commit words to memory. All of 
these they should have seen as an integral part of a sen- 
tence. They should learn the nominative singular and 
plural of the nouns, and the principal parts of the irregular 
verbs. Attention should now and then be called to cog- 
nate words in English, to loan-words like Brief, Kaiser 
(Caesar), schreiben, (reissen, ritzen), etc. ; to derivatives in 
er, ner, ler: Raub, Burg, malen, wandern, etc.; to syno- 
nyms Hitze, Feuer, Warme, etc. 

READER. 

86. The center of the work is the reader. The teacher 
should read, or translate, or explain, or give beforehand a 
brief synopsis of the reading lesson to the pupils. The 
reading should always be with clear pronunciation, with 
distinct articulation, and with sympathy and enthusiasm. 
Good reading is half explaining; where expression is want- 
ing, there also impression fails. Nothing should be ex- 
plained that the pupils can work out for themselves. Let 
the explanation be very brief, to the point and interesting. 
Occasionally a lesson in etymology is of great interest; 
(trink-e, trank, ge-trunken, trinken, ab, an, auf, aus, be, 
durch, er, or fort, etc., trinken. Trinker, Wasser, Wein, 
etc., Trinker, trinkbar, Trinkbecher, -bude, gefahrte, -ge- 
fass, -geld, -horn, -kanne, -lied, -lust, etc. Trank, Gotter, 
Opfer, Zaubertrank, Getriink; tranken: ein, ertranken, 
Tranke, Trunk, Schlaf, Prllh, Labetrunk; trunken: be, 
freude, sieges, wonne trunken; Trunkenheit, Siegestrun- 
kenheit, etc.) Attention should now and then be called to 
the different meanings of words. (Hof : Der Hof behndet 
sich an dem Hause. Der Verschwender wird zuletzt von 
Haus und Hof getrieben. Der Puerst, seine Familie und 
seine Beamten bilden den Hof. Der Edelknabe tnusste an 



German. 39 

dem Hofe eines Ritters hofische Sitten lernen. Hofisch 
heisst jezt htibsch. Grtisse hoflich! Hoflichkeit ziert den 
Menschen, etc. Sehen: Der Mann sieht. Nach dem Essen, 
nach den Kindern sehen. Die Fenster der Wohnung sehen 
nach Suden. Diese That sieht dir gar nicht ahnlich. Du 
wirst dein blaues W under sehen. Sich satt sehen. Er 
macht ein freundliches Gesicht, etc. Fein: Der Faden ist 
fein. Eine feine Naht, ein feiner Regen, feiner Geschmack, 
ein feiner Mann, f eines Gehor; es ist nichts so fein gespon- 
nen, etc.). Pupils should read the lesson aloud at home, 
and commit every new word to memory. In the recitation 
room, the teacher should first hear the vocabulary and then 
the pupils should read and translate the lesson. They 
should read slowly and distinctly; every sound and 
every syllable should be clearly heard. If a mistake is 
made in reading, not the teacher but the pupil should cor- 
rect it, or, if he can not do it, another pupil. After hav- 
ing read and translated the lesson, questions in German 
about the contents of the lesson should be asked. These 
should be clear, concise and definite (wer, was, wie, wo, 
warum, wem, wen? etc., should be used as often as 
possible). All "yes or no" questions and answers are 
worthless. The answer must always be given in a 
complete German sentence distinctly and correctly accent- 
uated. The "promiscuous method" of calling on pupils to 
recite is always the best. 

87. In the reading lesson, an analysis of the sentences, 
and a review of the main grammatical points is necessary. 
For instance: the story "Der Wolf und der Mensch" is 
read. Wem erzahlte der Fuchs, etc.? What case? Why? 
Wohin brachte er den Wolf ? What case? Why? Wo 
war jetzt der Wolf? Wen brachte der Fuchs auf den Weg? 
Infinitive of brachte? principal parts? use the sentence in 
the present perfect, future, etc. tense? Wer kam zuerst? 
What case? Why? Use the indefinite article! Translate: 
Our (my, his) old discharged soldiers, etc., etc. (Refer- 
ence book: Kehr, Theoretische-praktische Anweiswng zur Be- 
handlung deutscJter Lesestucke. Gotha, Thienemann.) 



40 German. 

MEMORIZING POEMS. 

88. Every pupil should be able to recite at the end of 
the course from nine to twelve poems intelligently and 
with expression. These poems must be prepared in class 
by means of repeated, careful, and thoughtful reading. 
The following are recommended: Die Einkehr, Der gute 
Kamerad, Siegfrieds Schwert, Lorelei, Gefunden, De 
kleine Hydriot, Der blinde Konig, Das Lied vom braven 
Mann, Der alte Barbarossa, Erlkonig, Der Sanger, Der 
Lotse, Die Auswanderer, Des Sangers Fluch, Die Btirg- 
schaft. In several high schools there are classes of 

GERMAN-AMERICANS. 

89. For those that speak German at home, the follow- 
ing course of study is recommended: 

1. Acquaintance with the most essential rules of syntax. 

2. Practice in correct oral and written language, and 
easy exercises in composition. 

3. Introduction into German literature of the classical 
period. 

4. Memorizing of selected ballads and memory gems. 
Special consideration should be paid to etymology and 

the meaning of words. 



SCIENCE. 



90. The science work of the high schools presents two 
phases to the principal. In the first place it may be a 
study of text-books, illustrated by such simple material as 
is readily found at hand and made pertinent and clear by 
frequent reference to the common experiences of every day 
life. Again, it may be scientific teaching, in which case 
its purpose first of all is to train pupils to see, to describe 
what they see as. they see it, and then to reflect on what 
they have seen. The pupils may observe and experiment 
for themselves and from the results of these experiments 
they may draw the conclusion which reason seems to war- 
rant. If science teaching is to give mental discipline and 
power, the pupil must be taught by being brought directly 
into contact with things and led to obtain his knowledge 
of facts from careful observation of nature and natural phe- 
nomena. The text-book must be kept in the background 
and become merely an aid and not the source of knowledge. 
Pupils should be required to draw what they see, and not 
merely to copy the diagrams of the text-book. 

91. A definite plan as to the teaching of certain branches 
is suggested, that progress throughout the state, so far as 
practicable, may be uniform. 

Botany and physics offer the best possible opportunities 
for science teaching in its second phase. The study of 
botany trains the faculty of observation. The study of 
physics develops its own peculiar style of reasoning from 
the data obtained by experiments. Accordingly the work 
which may be done in those two branches is outlined in 
considerable detail, while in the others, viz. : physical ge- 
ography and physiology, the better class of text-books 
may prove a sufficient guide. The almost universal opin- 



42 Physical Geography. 

ion of specialists in the several schools to which the grad- 
uates of high schools ultimately find their way, is that it 
is incomparably better to teach one or two sciences broadly 
and well than to try to give instruction in many lines. 
The pupil who is to have no further education than that 
afforded by the high schools, will unquestionably acquire a 
more scientific habit of thought and will receive greater 
benefit by confining his attention to a limited range of 
subjects. There are few schools in the state which can 
profitably take more than the four branches named. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

In teaching this subject the instructor must keep in 
mind certain conditions and limitations which surround the 
pupil: 

93 . This is the only study in the first year's course 
which makes any considerable demand on the pupil's abil- 
ity to read; and, as a rule, pupils in this grade have not 
yet learned to read, i. e., to get thoughts easily and accu- 
rately from the printed page. Hence the text -book assign- 
ments in this branch must be dealt with as reading lessons 
for thought analysis until the habit of seeking first to get 
the author's exact meaning is firmly fixed. Mere memo- 
rizing of the text should not be tolerated, nor is much 
questioning necessary in recitation. The topical method 
of recitation is especially suited to this subject, and pu- 
pils should be trained to give the substance of whole para- 
graphs in words of their own choice. 

94. Since this is the first study in the course which has 
to do with natural science, it will be necessary to intro- 
duce certain topics by preparatory lessons in elementary 
physics, in order that the causes of phenomena may be 
made plain. Thus a few lessons on heat, illustrated by 
simple experiments, its transmission and its effect on gases 
should precede the study of winds and precipitation. 



Botany. 43 

95. To obtain the best results considerable field work 
should be done. Examples of erosion, deposition of silt, 
effects of drainage, causes which determine direction of 
streams, the relation of soil and drainage to vegetation, 
will be better understood if studied on a small scale from 
natural objects. 

BOTANY. 

96. The radical defect of the older teaching lay in the 
failure to study the plants themselves: in the failure to treat 
them as living organisms: and in the failure to take into ac- 
count the existence of other plants than the flowering ones. 
Teachers who are to be up to the times should therefore 
give special heed to these three points. No plan or out- 
line can be given which will be universally applicable. 
Modify the suggestions here given in accordance with your 
own attainments and the needs of your pupils, but in all 
cases hold fast to these three cardinal principles. 

ROOM AND APPARATUS. 

97. If possible a room should be furnished with a 
sufficient number of common kitchen tables (those with un- 
finished tops are best), at which two students can work 
comfortably, and even four if crowded. The more win- 
dows the better. 

98. The apparatus required is simple. Simple lenses 
with some device for supporting them while the hands 
are used in dissecting are needed. The bank-note lenses, 
which are mounted on three legs, will serve the purpose 
but they are usually of low power. An effective and low 
priced dissecting stand, which is in use in the University 
of, Wisconsin, can be procured from the Bausch & Lomb 
Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y. (Stand T, of their catalogue. 
List price $2.50 with 25 per cent, discount.) 

99. A deep individual butter dish and a shallow pan 
about 5 x 10 inches are necessary for examining speci- 
mens in water. Each student should have a pair of nee- 



44 Botany. 

dies (No. 6, "sharps") with the eye-end driven into soft 
pine handles. This can be done by holding the needle 
with a pair of pliers and forcing it in. The pupil should 
be required to provide himself with a sAarp-bladed pen 
knife, a rarer article than might be supposed. Better work 
in cutting thin sections can be done with a dissecting 
scalpel or razor. 

HOW TO GET MATERIAL. 

100. Begin with a study of the flowering plants. There 
will be room for the exercise of some ingenuity in get- 
ting pupils to provide proper material for study by raising 
some and collecting some. Lima beans, sun flowers and 
corn can be grown in pots or boxes; window gardens, 
greenhouses and provision stores can be drawn upon until 
the spring opens. But it is better to have material col- 
lected in the summer and preserved in alcohol or by dry- 
ing. To remove brittleness and prevent drying, material 
preserved in alcohol may be transferred directly to water 
and studied therein. If that which has been dried is to be 
dissected, it should be brought to its original form by 
soaking for an hour or so in hot water. 

HOW TO BEGIN. 

101. It matters little what part is selected for a begin- 
ning. If the study commences in winter, the shoots of 
trees, two or more feet long, may be used. Select a tree 
in which the scars left by the fall of the foliage, leaves and 
bud scales of the preceding season are quite conspicuous, 
such as the Cottonwood, poplar, hickory or horse-chestnut. 
Set the students at work to examine these before they have 
been assigned any study in the book. Have them examine 
all the markings they can find; compare the buds; study 
the relation between the buds and the scars; determine the 
extent of the preceding season's growth and of the season 
before that. When as much as possible of the external 
anatomy has been seen, let them carefully dissect the buds, 
studying the nature and shape of the scales; the character 



Botany. 45 

of their surfaces, whether hairy or resinous; the young fo- 
liage leaves for the next season; the young stem, compar- 
ing the shoot for the coming season with last season's 
growth, noting the differences and resemblances. This dis- 
section should be made both by tearing off the parts, and 
by cutting thin slices crossways and lengthways with the 
knife. At the outset much, indeed most, of the dissection 
will be chiefly remarkable for haste and consequent careless- 
ness. Insist on slow, painstaking study from the first. 

102. When the students have seen everything that they 
think there is to be seen, let them write a description of 
what they have observed. They should be asked to make 
this description terse, using their own language and not 
resorting to the book for terms. The teacher should then 
examine these descriptions, in which he will doubtless find 
much omitted. Make the study of the same shoot the sub- 
ject of the next class exercise, in which point out each 
feature that ought to be examined, giving sufficient time 
for the inspection of each part. Endeavor to show that 
for the circumlocutions in their descriptions there are 
often single words (technical terms) . The pupils will thus 
come to know something of the method of accurate and 
thorough observation, and will discover that tecnnical 
terms are not hard words invented for their discomfiture 
but are short ways of expressing the ideas gained. 

103. At the close of this exercise call upon each pupil 
to draw carefully a portion of the shoot enlarged, show- 
ing as many of the facts observed as possible. Drawings 
should also be made of the dissected parts. Here the 
teacher may be met by the objection on the part of the 
pupils that they cannot draw; but as that is only another 
way of saying that they cannot see accurately, he will 
have to insist upon their doing the best they can, with the as- 
surance that as the power of accurate observation increases 
the accuracy of the drawings will increase in the same 
ratio. He should be able to lead here as well as at other 
difficult places. Happy he if he be not a blind leader of 
the blind. 



46 Botany. 

104. After studying several other shoots in the same 
way, and not till then, assign the lesson in the text on 
buds and branching. Supplement this by talks about the 
functions of the parts, the causes of the markings, etc. ; or 
by readings to the class ; or require reading by members of 
the class on the topics studied. For example, on buds and 
branches, see Sachs' Physiology of Plants, pp. 41-43; Good- 
ale's Physiological Botany, pp. 444-445; Gray's Structural 
Botany, Newell's Outlines, Lesson 4 and Reader I. 

105. The points specially emphasized here are : 1. Study 
of the plants themselves. 2. Drawing, and describing ob- 
servations. 3. The study of the text-book. 4. Supple- 
mentary readings, particularly as to the function of the 
parts studied. 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY. 

106. Following this method with each organ, the follow- 
ing topics are suggested: 

Underground stems: Potato (tuber); onion (bulb); cycla- 
men or Indian turnip (coran. 

Structure of stems: Cut thin slices of both herbaceous and 
woody stems and examine in water. Bean, sunflower, 
geranium, hyacinth, corn (or any grass) and twigs of for- 
est trees may be used. 

Leaves: Structure of blade and petiole ; forms of stipules ; 
character of venation, particularly with reference to func- 
tion of veins. Reference readings on the function of fo- 
liage leaves are particularly important. Study of the un- 
folding leaves in spring is specially desirable. 

Flowers: Parts; forms; adaptation to insect visits, flower 
clusters, etc. It is not necessary here to enter into details 
as to these parts, since they are treated fully and have al- 
ways received over much attention because of their im- 
portance to classification. 

107. Let it be remembered in the study of all these 
topics that it is not a memorizing of the technical terms of 
descriptive botany that is wanted, but a study of structure 
of the parts with reference to function. Insist on the pu- 



Botany. 47 

pil's constantly asking himself, "What is this for?" As to 
technical terms, if they are not acquired as a convenience 
they are should not be acquired. 

108. For assistance in guiding the observations of pu- 
pils see Spalding's Introduction to Botany (D. C. Heath & 
Co.) Newell's Outlines of Lessons in Botany (Ginn & Co., Chi- 
cago, Parts I and II, $1.45); also Hall's Botany for Public 
Schools (Sherwood & Co., Chicago). The latter introduces 
an unnecessary number of terms and teachers must beware 
of the physiology incidentally taught. The preface is espe- 
cially commended to attention. 

109. Some schools have divided botanical work so as to 
have six weeks of the time come in the autumn. In such 
schools it is suggested that the study be begun then, de- 
voting the entire six weeks to the thorough examination of 
the structure of one plant, say a sunflower, or a fern. The 
teacher can take this opportunity for a general preview of 
the whole subject. But if it is preferred to have the be- 
ginning occur in the winter or spring, take this time for a 
study of lower plants, which should not be omitted from 
any course. 

110. For this work full directions cannot be given. 
Teachers can make plans for the work by consulting par- 
ticularly Bessey's Elementary Botanical Exercises, (J. H. 
Miller, Lincoln, Neb., 35c); Arthur, Barnes & Coulter's 
Handbook of Plant Dissection (Henry Holt & Co., N. Y., 
$1.50); and Campbell's Structural and Systematic Botany 
(Ginn & Co., Chicago, $1-25). Bower's Practical Botany 
(Macmillan & Co.), and Strasburger's Practical Botany 
(trans, by Hillhouse, Macmillan & Co.) will also be found 
helpful. 

111. Every teacher should have some book with direc- 
tions for preserving plants. The following are available: 
Bailey's Collector's Handbook (Bates, Salem, Mass.); Pen- 
hallow's Botanical Collector's Guide (Renouf, Montreal) ; 
Knowlton's Directions for Preserving Recent and Fossil Plants, 
(part B, Bulletin 39, U. S. National Museum). 



48 Physiology. 

112. In the following list of reference books for the 
school library the most important are starred (*) and should 
be purchased first, if but few can be procured at a time: 
Vines' Student's Text-book of Botany:* Vines' Lecture on the 
Physiology of Plants: Sachs' Lectures on the Physiology of 
Plants:* Goebel's Outlines of Classification and Special Mor> 
phology: DeBary's Fungi, Bacteria and Mycetozoa:* DeBary's 
Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns (all to be 
had of Macmillan & Co., N. Y.); Gray's Botanical Text-booh 
(two volumes only published, viz., Gray's Structural Botany* 
and Goodale's Physiological Botany [American Book Co.]); 
Kerner's Flowers and their Unbidden Guests* (Kegan, Paul & 
Co.); Mlill er' s Fertilization of Flowers;* Darwin's Movements 
and Habits of Climbing Plants, Insectivorous Plants (Appleton); 
Kerner's Natural History of Plants* (translation of Pflanzen- 
leben, now, Aug., 1894, m course of publication by A. & C. 
Black); Geddes' Chapters in Modern Botany* (Scribner); 
Practical Flora, Willis* (American Book Co.). 



PHYSIOLOGY. 

113. The subiect of physiology is the body considered as 
a working machine. The method of its working should be 
taught — not merely its structure. Hygiene is the art of 
furnishing to the body the best conditions of work. 

114. The tissues are the elementary machines, or the 
frame- work in which these work. Muscle, nerve and gland 
are the chief members of the first group. 

115. Physiology shows three main divisions: 

1. The handling of the food and the disposition of waste 
— nutrition, in the broadest sense. 

2. The expenditure of energy — motion, heat. 

3. The correlation of work, internal and external — nerv- 
ous work in general. 

116. In discussing each of these divisions, attention 
should be directed to the underlying principles, rather 
than to the details of the processes. 



Physiology. 49 

117. The relation of food and waste, the place of oxygen 
among the foods, the reason why proteid food is neces- 
sary, the significance of waste in the life of the body, the 
origin and fate of urea, are a few of the topics generally 
neglected, but necessary to a clear view of the subject. 
The mechanics of circulation and respiration should be 
carefully studied. In the former the significance of arterial 
pressure is usually neglected. In the latter, the way in 
which the oxygen is used should be studied, as well as how 
it gets into the lungs. 

118. The gland should be studied as a machine for do- 
ing chemical work and the analogies between muscle and 
gland should be made clear. 

119. The student should know what a waste substance 
is; why it is such; why it became a waste; and how it is 
disposed of. 

120. Under the second head some attention must be 
given to the idea of the correlation of energy. The body's 
supply of energy and its expenditure of energy must be 
made plain as well as the income and the outgo of matter. 
Students must not think that matter is turned into en- 
ergy. 

121. Under the third head, the functions of sense-organs, 
nerve and central organ must be carefully distinguished. 
The student must learn why the blind spot in the eye is 
blind as well as the fact of its existence. Attention should 
be given to making clear the working principles of these 
organs rather than to the detail of structure. 

122. It is often well to introduce a class to this study by 
dissections, that the pupils may obtain some general ideas 
of the plan of an animal, its organs and their relation. It 
may be found necessary in most instances for the teacher 
to make the dissection while their pupils draw and take 
notes to be written out in full in their books. Later, as 
the class takes up new subjects the teacher may encourage 
the pupils to dissect for themselves if there is sufficient 
material. These dissections should be less general and 
should extend to minuter details than before and be re- 

4 



50 Ph ysics. 

corded by the pupils as at first. Usually material may be 
had of the butcher if he is given sufficient notice. The 
teacher will find Martin's Human Body (Elementary Course) 
very helpful in suggesting methods and experiments. 

123. Teachers should consult the Manual for Common 
Schools (C. S. M., 249-270), for further suggestions. Martin's 
Human Body (Advanced Course) will be found a valuable 
book for reference. 

PHYSICS. 

123. Satisfactory results in this branch cannot be ob- 
tained in less than a full school year. It is desirable to 
have a room that can be used as a laboratory, but if such 
a room is not available tables may be placed in the main 
room, in a hall or in a regular recitation room. Where 
the main room is used it is better to place the tables be- 
hind the pupils who are studying. 

124. Every school should be furnished with a few 
pieces of apparatus and material from which simpler pieces 
may be constructed. Great care should be exercised in 
selecting the apparatus, especially where the funds at 
command are limited. If liberal appropriations are avail- 
able the more useful pieces may be duplicated and arrange- 
ments made for extended quantitative work. Many of the 
more expensive articles are of little value except for show 
purposes, and should be purchased only after the essentials 
are supplied, The object of the experimental work is not 
to make a brilliant spark fly between the poles of a com- 
plicated electric machine, nor to break with a resounding 
crash a piece of rubber stretched over the hand-glass on a 
costly air pump. To discover, demonstrate and fix in the 
mind the laws of nature are the purposes to be kept in 
view. In the majority of cases this may be done very 
simply, very effectively and with little expense and 
trouble. 

125. Teachers are usually so busy with other work that 
time will be saved by training one or more of the pupils 



Physics. 51 

to assist. Almost every class contains some one of natural 
tact and ingenuity who may greatly assist both teacher 
and pupils while he derives personal benefit from the ad- 
ditional opportunities. 

126. It is not usually desirable to put into the hands of 
the pupils one of the published Laboratory Manuals. Usually 
these are poorly adapted to local conditions and are apt to 
be more troublesome than beneficial. Every teacher must 
be a law to himself and, using all the manuals and good 
texts he can procure, he must lay out in detail the work of 
his classes and adapt it to the material at hand and the 
conditions under which the pupils labor. By means of a 
mimeograph, a copying pad or the blackboard he can 
place before the class directions for their work and ask 
such pointed questions as to set the thoughts of the 
pupils in the right direction. 

127. Each pupil should perform for himself the experi- 
ments prescribed except in those cases where more will be 
gained from the discussions resulting from two or more 
working together. 

128. In neatnote-books, the pupils should record in detail, 
descriptions of the experiments, results obtained, infer- 
ences drawn and principles established, illustrating by 
sketches the actual apparatus used. In all quantitative 
work great care must be used that the results contain the 
least possible percentage of error. In this way every topic 
should be treated before a text-book is given to the pupil. 
The book is to be used for reference, to assist in gather- 
ing up lost threads, to knit together and to systematize 
what might from the laboratory method alone be disin- 
tegrated and unrelated. 

129. Laboratory work without capable and constant su- 
pervision is a delusion and a snare. It leads to careless 
habits of observation and to loose thinking. Pupils are 
not to blame. They are too young to know how to act and 
how to think. It is the province of this study to give 
them the power to do and to think, and that teacher is 
derelict who contents himself with teaching a mass of 



52 Physics. 

facts, or allows his pupils to " putter " about the labora- 
tory and gain slovenly habits of thought and of action. 

130. The laboratory should be a model of neatness. 
There is no excuse for dirt and disorder, and no worse 
lesson can be taught than that given by the slovenly 
worker. 

131. While time is necessary in the laboratory too much 
should not be devoted to work with apparatus. Keen, 
piercing questioning should follow every series of experi- 
ments. Descriptive recitations, demonstrations of princi- 
ples, off-hand blackboard sketches to illustrate apparatus 
used or to show results of experiments should all have a 
prominent place. The mathematical side of the study 
should not be neglected, and accuracy of result should be 
insisted upon. Arithmetic, Algebra and Geometry should 
all be called into play and Physics should be made to 
show the practical application of all those branches. 
Nearly every topic must be a severe test of mathematical 
reasoning and accuracy of calculation. 

132. Teachers will find the following texts filled with 
valuable suggestions: Shaw's Physics by Experiment, Chute's 
Physics, Hopkin's Experimental Science, Edward's Band Book, 
Mayer's Sound, Mayer's Light, Dolbear's Hatter, Ether & 
Motion. 

SYLLABUS. 

133. It is usually best to follow the order and sub-divi- 
sions of the topics in the text-book in use. 

134. The molecular theory must be thoroughly under- 
stood by the class so far as the more elementary concep- 
tions are concerned, though it may require time and a 
broader acquaintance with physics to accomplish this. 

135. The properties of matter may be best taught by 
appealing to knowledge already acquired from experience. 
Pupils should be required to give numerous illustrations 
which have come under their personal observation. Ex- 
tension and other properties furnish excellent opportuni- 
ties for quantitative experiments. 



PItysics. 53 

136.The laws of gravitation and weight may be taught 
from the book and fixed in the mind by the solution of nu- 
merous problems. 

137. The laws of motion, of the pendulum and of fall- 
ing bodies may be readily developed by the class. In 
these sections of the study, as elsewhere, excellent oppor- 
tunities are offered for home experimentation, each pupil 
preparing his own apparatus, describing and illustrating it 
thereafter. Rigid questioning in the class-room can be 
depended upon to guard against errors and carelessness. 
Self-reliance is a good quality to cultivate. Where classes 
are large or facilities insufficient, much practical home 
work may be prescribed throughout the year. 

138. Pupils and teachers may readily make nearly all 
apparatus to illustrate the laws of simple machines. The 
greater the friction the heavier the weights necessary. 
Much interest may be created by requiring the pupils to 
sketch and give the mechanical analyses of machines in use 
at home. A great variety is thus obtained and interesting 
and profitable discussions arise. Nothing is too homely for 
use. The carpet-sweeper, the wringer and the washing ma-- 
chine, the egg-beater, the monkey- wrench, the coffee-mill 
and a score of other familiar machines may be utilized. Of 
what use is it? What principles are involved? How is 
power applied? What is gained and wherein lies the cor- 
responding loss? 

139. The fundamental principles of hydrostatics may 
be illustrated in several ways with very simple apparatus. 
Pupils should be required to find the specific gravity of 
several different substances, both liquids and solids, heavy 
and light. All definitions and laws should be thoroughly 
memorized. The coarser the scales the heavier and larger 
should be the objects weighed. 

140. Pneumatics may be well taught without an air 
pump, but one is very convenient. By means of glass 
tubes and rubber, one can accomplish much, but the work- 
ing models of pumps and other apparatus mentioned in the 
list are very helpful. 



54 Physics. 

141. No field offers better facilities for experimental 
work than does electricity. No expensive apparatus is 
necessary, however charming. Prictional electricity is apt 
to be too much elaborated. A simple plate machine is bet- 
ter than a more complicated one, though neither is essential. 
The theories of conduction, induction and condensation 
should be mastered and pupi]s should know the few prac- 
tical applications of them. Glittering experiments may cre- 
ate a temporary interest but physics is not a display study. 

Not much expensive apparatus is necessary to teach Vol- 
taic electricity. The inexperienced teacher will find the 
surest way to a clear understanding of the apparatus and the 
facts and laws of electricity through making the most of 
the apparatus used. This cannot be too strongly recom- 
mended. If the laboratory is not supplied with a plunge 
battery of four or more cells, one may easily be made. It 
is desirable that the school be supplied with a Leclanche, 
a gravity and a Bunsen's cell for illustrative purposes. 

142. The facts and the theory of the currents induced 
by other electric currents and by magnets should be thor- 
oughly illustrated, and the class should be so drilled as to 
acquire a mastery of what is taught. The principles of 
the working of the dynamo, the telephone, the telegraph, 
the phonograph, the motor, the storage battery, the arc 
and the incandescent lamps should be learned, if possible, 
from actual observation and experiment. No teacher 
should hesitate to take his class where the members can 
see these machines in operation. Almost every town 
affords some one of them, and access thereto is rarely de- 
nied. When these machines have been seen, diagrams 
representing them should be drawn. 

143. The theories of sound, heat and light should be 
taught experimentally, and in the order mentioned. A lit- 
tle ingenuity will enable the teacher to demonstrate nearly 
every principle with very inexpensive apparatus. Each 
topic should be subdivided and each set of experiments 
followed by careful discussions. The similarities and 
differences in the character of the motion that manifests 



Physics. 55 

itself in sound, heat or light should be carefully correlated. 
The molecular theory may now be made clear, if not pre- 
viously comprehended. When considering mirrors and 
len&es much drawing should be practiced till principles 
are understood and can be demonstrated by figures with 
mathematical exactness. While off- hand work is else- 
where desirable, here the drawing should be as exact as 
possible. 

144. The elementary facts of color and polarization may 
be taught with simple apparatus. Expensive polariscopes 
are not necessary, but a pocket spectroscope should be 
obtained. 

145. The course in physics may be shortened at first 
by omitting some of the more difficult discussions, espe- 
cially if the teacher possesses no means of experimental 
illustrations. But under no circumstances should the dis- 
cussion of work and energy be slighted. The class must 
be led to perceive the transformation of one form of energy 
into another under whatever form it may appear. The re- 
lation between work and energy must be kept constantly 
in mind. 

146. Finally, that teaching of physics is best which 
causes the pupils to see clearly, to do well and to think 
closely, and this result can never be attained except by 
hard, enthusiastic labor on the part of the teacher. 

APPARATUS. 

147. The following list of apparatus is considered es- 
sential. It is not to be supposed that it contains all the 

apparatus that is desirable. The pieces here enumerated 
are those not easily constructed, and for which it is not 
easy to substitute anything else. The Mcintosh Battery 
and Optical Co., and W. A. Olmsted of Chicago, and Queen 
& Co. of Philadelphia, will furnish the pieces. The prices 
may be subject to considerable variation but will be serv- 
iceable in making estimates. Persons buying should 
write for catalogues, and invite estimates before ordering. 



56 Physics. 

148. Model of a steam engine $3 50 

This model shows the essential parts of a steam engine in posi- 
tion and how they work. 
Clinical microscope with society screw, fine adjusting screw, one 

eye piece and 1 inch objective 20 00 

With polished case 21 00 

Combination specific gravity and chemical balance with two long 

and one short pan and hook. 6 00 

1 set metric weights , 50 grams down 75 

Lever air pump — 3 valves, 8 inch plate 21 00 

Bell jar, 8 inches diameter 1 50 

Magdeburg hemispheres, 4 inch stop cock and stand 3 50 

The last two are attachments for the air pump. 

Barometer tube, heavy glass 50 

Pipette for mercury. (Needed for filling tubes with mercury) 10 

3 lbs. mercury and bottle 2 55 

Marriotte's Law apparatus 3 00 

Marriotte's Tube only 60 

Set of three single, two double pulleys, weights and wheel and 

axle 3 00 

Pair of bar magnets with keepers, 6 in 60 

Magnetic needle, on stand 50 

Electrophorus and catskin 3 50 

Leyden jar, 1 qt 1 00 

Telegraph sounder on base 

Telegraph key ready to mount on base 3 50 

Electric bell 75 

Double convex lens (reading glass), 4 in. in frame 1 50 

3 oz. alcohol lamp 25 

Glass tubing per lb 30 

3-16 rubber tubing per ft 08 

Reto 1 1 stand, 2 rings 40 

Iron clamp, adjustable 55 

Florence flasks, 1 pint 20 

Funnel glass, 4 oz 08 

Glass model of lifting pump 1 25 

Glass model of force pump 1 40 

Insulated copper wire, No. 16 80 

$ lb. insulated copper wire, No. 30 70 

Toepler & Holtz electric machine 24 00 

The last is an interesting addition to the list, but is not an es- 
sential. 

Glass cylinder graduate 500 cc. to 5 cc 1 20 

Glass cylinder graduate 25 cc. to 1 cc 38 

2 spring balances 48 oz., in ounces 42 



Psychology. 

2 spring balances 24 lbs., in poun is 42 

Chemical thermometer 200 c. Scale on stem $1 40 

Rotating machine with centrifugal apparatus 4 55 

Galvanometer 4 90 

Glass friction rod for electricity, 22 in. length 30 

4 cell plunge battery 9 00 

Primary and secondary coils, movable 5 25 

Ruhmkorff 's coil, $ in. spark 8 40 

Siren disk (to be used with rotating table) 1 40 

Pair of large tuning forks, one on resonant case 3 15 

Convex and concave mirror 2 45 

6 in, prism 42 



PSYCHOLOGY. 

149. The study of psychology in the high schools must 
necessarily be elementary and will be successful in so far 
only as it is simple and direct. No effort should be made 
to teach a system of philosophy or to engage in metaphys- 
ical disputation. The end will be reached if the pupil is 
taught what the mind can do and how it does it. A scheme 
of the mental faculties should be presented and the pupil 
should learn the office of each and the order in which it is 
developed. Definitions of mental powers and processes 
should be given, so far as possible, in simple, unequivocal 
English. When it is found necessary to use a Latinized or 
a foreign term its meaning and the necessity for its use 
should be clearly shown, and the pupil should be required 
to use it in his recitations until the term acquires the force 
and distinctness of a native idiom. The teacher should 
remember that mental methods can be denned and illus- 
trated only by appeals to individual experience, and that 
facts and theories are worthless to the student unless and 
until he finds them there. Fundamental processes, such 
as perception and consciousness, should be clearly de- 
fined, but no effort should be made to explain their source. 

150. The influence of the emotions and the will in de- 
termining character and conduct may be explained and il- 
lustrated, but all effort to examine the origin of these pow 



58 Pedagogy. 

ers, or to determine the order of their activity will result 
in mental confusion. But after all necessary eliminations 
are made the pursuit of the theme may be rendered both 
pleasant and profitable. The mind is the instrument 
through whose activity all accretions of knowledge come. 
The study of its powers, modes of action and limitations 
is noble in itself and ought to be rich in results. 

151. The examination of the sequence in the unfolding 
of its powers furnishes the guide lines for student and 
teacher. The habit of sober and accurate thought which 
this study necessitates is the prerequisite of wise action. 
To impart the power of fixing the attention, of holding the 
mind steadily to the subject in hand is preeminently the 
province of psychological study, and is the highest out- 
come of intellectual training. 

In addition to the text used with this class, teachers 
will find the following books especially useful for refer- 
ence: Murray's Handbook of Psychology, Carpenter's Mental 
Physiology, especially chapters 3-12; and for the emotions 
and the will, Bain's Education as a Science, ch. 3. 



PEDAGOGY. 

152. The law requires that instruction in the Theory 
and Art of Teaching and the manual of the course of study 
for common schools shall be given in all free high schools 
receiving aid from the state; and the recommended courses 
of study for such schools 'indicate classes in this subject 
during the spring term of the year. 273. The aim of the 
instruction in this branch should be eminently practical. 

153. The following books are especially recommended 
to principals as useful. White's Elements of Pedagogy — 
Parts 2, 3 and 4; Page's Theory and Practice; Swett's 
Methods of Teaching; Pitch's Lectures on Teaching; Rein's 
Outlines of Pedagogics, especially Part lib, "Of means of 
Educational Methodology;" White's School Management and 
Patrick's Elements of Pedagogics. This last book is espe- 



Pedagogy. 59 

cially useful as a text for high schools, being simple, new, 
practical and interesting. 

154. The following outline will serve as a guide for the 
general conduct of the work. The chief difficulty will be 
found to arise from its seeming unreality. The pupils 
lack practical contact with the problems involved and their 
imperfectly formed habits of reflection, make it difficult 
for them to deal fruitfully with the subject. This difficulty 
will be best overcome by approaching it first through ob- 
servation of actual work followed by class exercises for 
discussion of the same. The observation, in order to be 
profitable, should be guided by questions proposed before- 
hand by the teacher; the pupil's report should be written, 
and limited strictly to observations bearing upon the topic 
assigned. The reports should be properly made in an exer- 
cise book kept for that purpose, in which, in the beginnirg, 
entries should not be made until after the first draft has 
been suggested to criticism. In the class work following, 
it should be the teacher's purpose to develop reflection, and 
not to pour in information. 



I. Observation. 

155. Order. What is the plan of seating, and what are 
its advantages? How do the pupils come into the room? 
How are the movements of classes, etc., managed? What 
arrangements prevail as to requests by pupils? 

156. Control. How does the teacher secure the attention 
and obedience of the school? How is the giving of general 
orders managed? How are individuals restrained? What 
is the tone of the school and how is it secured? What 
does the teacher accomplish by a look, a gesture, a quiet 
word? What reproofs have you noticed? What sugges- 
tions? What punishments? What rules do you find in 
force in the schools? 

157. Organization. How many grades are there in the 
schools? How many recitations has each? What studies? 



60 Pedagogy. 

What are the pupils doing in each? What is the program, 
and what does it show? Are the pupils kept busy? How? 
What employment is provided for each division of time? 
What general exercises are there? Does the program pro- 
vide sufficient variety of work and allow sufficient move- 
ment to rest the pupils? 

158. Recitation. What are the subjects of the recitation, 
the ends attained and the plan by which they were at- 
tained? What rules of order prevail in the class? How is 
the work adapted to the needs of individuals? How is the 
whole class kept busy and interested? Is there emula- 
tion in the class, and how is it managed? Observe the as- 
signment of lessons to see (a) how long they are; (b) what 
directions are given for preparing them; (c) what helps 
are given in advance; (d) what motives are called into play 
to secure study. 

159. In giving directions for these and other observa- 
tions the high school teacher will, of course, instruct the 
class in whatever may be necessary for them to know in 
order to observe intelligently. 

II. The Manual. 

160. Preparatory. What is a course of study and what 
should it show? (C. S. M. 9. ) What branches of study must 
be taught in elementary schools? (C. S. M. 6.) What ad- 
vantages are there in favor of adopting the course provided 
in The Manual? (a) It is systematic and progressive; (b) it 
is divided into clearly distinguished forms or sections; (c) 
into which admission is gained by passing certain definite 
tests; and (d) it is the result of long experience and study. 

161. Plan of Study. (1) What the forms are, their limits 
and the tests for passing from each. (2) A general view 
of the whole course, to show (a) the systematic progress 
secured throughout the course in each of the leading 
branches, as arithmetic, reading, language lessons and 
geography. Let the purpose be to grasp clearly the 
order in which the different parts are taken up, and the 



Pedagogy. 6;i 

advantages of this. (b) The relation of the different 
branches to each other, as when geography is introduced 
and why, when and why history, grammar, constitution. 
(C. S. M. 10.) 

161 b. Methods. The scheme in The Manned affords the 
basis for general instruction in methods. It ought not 
to be a mere exercise of the memory, as will be the case 
if pupils are required to follow some text-book. Neither 
ought the work to be carried out in detail, so as to outline 
all that is to be done in the school. Let the brief indi- 
cations of The Manual often lead rather to the particular 
question how, and to the suggestion of various ways by 
pupils and teacher. Seek to form clear ideas of (a) what 
is the end to be attained, (b) how it may be attained. Parts 
II and III of Swett's Methods will be found very useful and 
many of the suggestions and practical exercises may be in- 
troduced profitably into the class, but the book is one to 
be consulted, not committed. Fitch's Lectures, from the fifth 
on, are valuable to the teacher as they are more coherent, 
systematic and philosophical. The teacher should be famil- 
iar with these before undertaking this instruction. It will 
be found most convenient to follow the order of the manual, 
taking up first the primary form, then the middle and 
finally the upper, that the general characteristics of teach- 
ing in each form may come out as distinctly as possible. 
Observation in the elementary schools may profitably be 
resumed during this work, the amount of it being deter- 
mined by its helpfulness in enabling the pupils to profit by 
the instruction. 

162. Supplementary. Program and how to make one 
(C. S. M. 382). Records, what kinds, what they should 
show, and why and how to keep them. (C. S. M. 388-392). 

III. Educational Maxims. 

163. A full discussion of the following maxims and the ap- 
plication of each to its proper phase of teaching should not 



62 Pedagogij. 

be neglected. All good teachers may not know these 
maxims but every good teacher follows them. 

Only one thing should be taught at one time, and 
an accumulation of difficulties should be avoided. 

[One thing may mean one branch, one topic or a single 
point in one topic; the latter is intended, and the maxim 
directs to teach each point completely before passing to 
the next. To follow it the points should be arranged in 
their natural order, so that in teaching one we may not 
imply another not yet mastered.] 

164. No exercise should be so difficult as to discour- 
age exertion, nor so easy as to render exertion unneces- 
sary. 

[Beget in the pupil a sense of progress, and a sense of 
his own power to do as the proper stimulus to exertion. ] 

165. Instruction should proceed from the known to the 
unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the concrete 
to the abstract. 

[ (a) What the child knows is the material to be used in 
teaching him more; (b) and this must be done by taking 
up first what he will understand most easily; (c) and pre- 
senting particular concrete instances until he is able to 
derive from them for himself the principal rule or gener- 
alization. 

166. The development of the child's powers is of more 
importance than the acquisition of knowledge; therefore, 
make the latter always contribute to the former. 

[The method to be followed is indicated in the following 
maxim.] 

167. The teacher's business is to help the learner to 
teach himself. 

[Avoid doing the work for the pupil; teach him in such 
ways as will help him to teach himself; lay out the work 
for him, supply motives for self- exertion, develop power 
of self-criticism.] 

168. Teach individuals so as to teach the class, and see 
to it that each pupil receives suitable instruction and does 
profitable work. 



Pedagogy. 63 

169. Provide employment for the hands of young chil- 
dren and frequent changes of work for them. 

170. Teach things, not mere words. 

[In oral teaching the idea should be impressed upon the 
mind of the pupil before the word which expresses it; but 
when a new term occurs the teacher should see to it that 
the pupils form some conception of what it means.] 



MATHEMATICS. 



171. The English and general science courses offer a 
year in algebra, a year in geometry, two terms in arithme- 
tic and one term in bookkeeping. 

172. In case the classical courses are also carried, a 
different arrangement is suggested, viz. : Place geometry 
in the second year and allow the third year of mathemat- 
ics to consist of a term of bookkeeping, one of arithma- 
tic and one of review in algebra and geometry. This is 
considered a more logical arrangement and it will doubt- 
less be possible for such schools to have the necessary 
preliminary work well done. The key to the successful ad- 
ministration of mathematics is the term, of review in algebra 
and geometry, following, if possible, the arithmetic. This 
should be conducted by the principal or some one conver- 
sant with the entire course, and should aim to correlate 
what may be disconnected, to show relations where none 
were seen and to fix the principles which underlie the 
branches. 

173. Students pursuing the classical courses must Omit 
some of the studies carried by others. The courses indi- 
cate what may best be sacrificed. 

ARITHMETIC. 

174. Review factoring, common fractions and deci- 
mals. Let the work be chiefly mental. Aim at quickness 
in handling easy numbers. The class need not be held to 
these almost fundamental operations until the necessary 
falcility in their use is obtained. The drill may be given 
in connection with more advanced calculations and serve 
as a relief from ordinary recitations. 



Arithmetic. 65 

175. Factoring. 

1. Secure a thorough familiarity with all the 

prime numbers less than 100. 

2. Secure ability to factor readily any composite 

number less than 100. 

3. See that the pupils are able to use readily the 

ordinary test of divisibility. 

4. Drill in finding G. C. D. and L. C. M. , 1st, by 

factoring; 2nd, by inspection. 

176. Fractions. 

1. Give much drill in handling fractions used in 

ordinary business; halves, thirds, fourths, 
fifths, sixths, eighths, tenths, twelfths, six- 
teenths, and twentieths. If the work of 
factoring has been done with sufficient thor- 
oughness, all the reductions necessary in 
addition and subtraction of fractions may 
be performed mentally, and in all work in 
multiplication and division cancellation may 
be readily employed. 

2. Make problems in fractions for pupils to solve 

and require them to make and solve prob- 
lems themselves. 

177. Decimals. 

1. Give much mental drill in reducing common 

fractions to decimals, and decimals to com- 
mon fractions. 

2. Show that common fractions may be exactly 

expressed as decimals and why. In these 
exercises success depends upon skill in 
handling the two factors 2 and 5, the prime 
factors of 10. 

3. Give written work in adding, subtracting, 

multiplying and dividing decimals. In all 
these see that pupils are able to take care 
of the decimal point. 



66 Arithmetic. 

178. Problems involving measurements of rectangular 

surfaces, lands, flooring, painting, plaster- 
ing, carpeting, etc., and problems involving 
measurements of rectangular solids, wood in 
piles, stone and brick in walls, grain in bins, 
liquids in vessels, etc., should be given con- 
siderable prominence. 

179. Percentage. 

1. Take great pains to give pupils clear ideas of 

the meaning of the terms used; per cent., 
base, rate, percentage, amount, difference. 

2. Give mental drill in reducing common and 

decimal fractions to per cent., and per cent. 
to common and decimal fractions. 

3. In all the applications of percentage the main 

thing is to know exactly what the base is, 
and the chief troubles arise from careless- 
ness in determining the base. 

4. In all questions in profit and loss, fix thorough- 

ly the fact that the base is the cost, and 
give drill in all the ordinary problems com- 
ing under this head. Give much mental 
work, Do not weary in asking, "what is the 
base?" so long as pupils hesitate in finding it. 

5. Commission is more difficult. The agent may 

buy : in that case the base is the purchase 
price. The agent may sell: here the base is 
selling price. The agent may collect: here 
the base is the sum collected. Drill thor- 
oughly first in easy problems to be solved 
mentally, then in more difficult problems for 
written work. 

6. In Trade Discount the base is the list price. 

In all of the applications of Percentage the 
pupil's difficulty is much more likely to be 
found in his ignorance of the nature of the 
business than in his want of arithmetical 
skill. 



Arithmetic. 67 

7. Learn the method of levying and collecting 

taxes in Wisconsin and base the work upon 
this method. What is the base? 

8. Teach interest thoroughly. Give careful in- 

struction in regard to promissory notes. Re- 
quire the pupils to write them until they 
become familiar with the best forms and with 
their legal significance. Do not attempt to 
teach all the numerous "best ways" of cast- 
ing interest. Let the pupils have the joy of 
discovering some of the labor saving expe- 
dients for themselves. Teach the U. S. Rule 
for Partial Payments. This work is usually 
made unnecessarily severe. The rule may 
be thoroughly taught without the use of such 
excessively tedious and difficult "examples" 
as are given in some of the books. 

180. Bookkeeping. 

Though this is placed in the courses of 
study it may profitably be pursued in connection 
with arithmetic instead. There should be much 
practice in making out bills and receipts; in writ- 
ing notes, checks and drafts of different kinds and 
other business papers. Choose some simple sys- 
tem of bookkeeping; by illustrations make your 
pupils familiar with the books of the system; then 
give them the work in the form of memoranda. In 
this way you can put into your memoranda any 
part of the arithmetic in which you wish to give 
them instruction. Partnership, Trade Discount, 
Bank Discount and other parts of the arithmetic 
may be taught in this way to great advantage. 

181. It is not profitable to teach foreign and domestic 
exchange as based on a "rate per cent, premium" 
or "course of exchange," or as relating to "time 
drafts. " Teach how to write, buy and sell checks 
and drafts, post office and express money orders. 
Exemplify other methods of paying debts in dis- 
tant places. 



68 Arithmetic. 

182. Ratio and Proportion. 

Here leave out Cause and Effect and teach the 
old "Rule of Three." Show that in solving 
problems by the "Rule of Three" while the 
statement differs in form from the statement 
in analysis, the operations to be performed 
are identical. 

183. Extraction of Square Root. 

1. By factoring. 

2. By inspection and trial. 

3. By the ordinary rule. 

184. Extraction of Cube Root. 

1. By factoring. 

2. By inspection and trial. 

3. By the ordinary rule. 

185. General Review, in the form of the solution of 

illustrative problems. 
These problems should be hard enough to try 
thoroughly the mettle of your pupils. They 
should be so constructed as to compel a review 
of the whole subject of arithmetic. 

186. The foregoing outline has been prepared to show 
what may profitably be taught in this branch. Most of this 
should have been done in the grades below the high school 
(C. S. M., 105-172), so that here, following algebra, the 
teacher's best effort may be given to presenting a real 
science of arithmetic, which will then be seen in all its in- 
timate relations to other branches of mathematics. How- 
ever, it has seemed best to defer more radical changes in 
the high school work until the grades can accomplish what 
the long years of time given them justify us in expecting. 



Algebra. 69 



ALGEBRA. 

187. In the school year devoted to this topic time 
enough is allowed to make preparation for college and to 
give all the disciplinary value that the branch affords. 

188. The solution of problems is not the end in algebra, 
but merely an incident. A retentive memory and a little 
native shrewdness will soon enable a pupil to perform his 
examples while he is still wondering at the magic by which 
he obtains the no less unintelligible results. It is easy to 
mistake this facility for real algebraic knowledge and it is 
only by constant drill in expressing the meaning of sym- 
bols and of operations that the skill may be turned to 
good account. 

189. The pupil should be constantly referred to princi- 
ples rather than to rules so that all operations may be 
logical and necessarily correct. In clearing of fractions 
and in every step of the transformation of equations he 
should perceive and be able to indicate the axioms upon 
which the work is based. Throughout he should be taught 
to see that these are only new applications of principles 
which have been familiar to him since he began arith- 
metic. The idea of generalization should be fully devel- 
oped and constantly dwelt upon by use of literal equations 
till they bristle with meaning. In the solution of these, drill 
should be given in finding the value of any letter in terms 
of the others. 

190. Though skill in factoring is eminently desirable, 
too much time may be spent in gaining facility in it. A 
real comprehension of the reasons for the processes must 
still be insisted upon. 

191. Exponents, numerical, literal, positive, negative 
and zero, fractional and integral, should be understood and 
stress should be laid upon the course of reasoning by which 
their value becomes apparent. Radicals and the theories 
of indices should be mastered even at the expense of 



70 Geometry. 

some of the problems with which the books are filled. 
Algebra should stimulate thought, not action; it is a think- 
ing study, not a doing one. But examples and problems 
are necessary, for only by them can one test the pupil's 
power to apply the principles he has learned. 

192. What has been said of the scope and aim of the 
study will indicate something of the methods to be pur- 
sued. There should be mental algebra as well as men- 
tal arithmetic, problems explained from the board and 
problems assigned therefrom. In general, when a problem 
is once solved its value is lost and it should not be called 
up again unless for reason. If the teacher wishes to test 
the skill and acumen of the pupil he can do it more ad- 
vantageously by presenting an entirely new set of condi- 
tions. Independence should be cultivated and too much help 
should not be given. It is as useless to expect every one 
in the class to do the same amount of work as it would be 
unfortunate were such a thing possible. If anywhere a 
student should be allowed to forge ahead it is in his math- 
ematics, and if the teacher is judicious no harm will arise 
from comparison with others less ready. Life and anima- 
tion should characterize the recitation, for the mind does 
this peculiar work best when under highest pressure. A 
slow, inert recitation is intolerable to pupils and should be 
tabooed among teachers. 



GEOMETRY. 

193. Classes commencing geometry usually need some 
illustrative exercises in the use of the common drawing in- 
struments and in the practical application of a few of the 
principles of geometry to measurements, to drawing and 
to the affairs of every day life. Time is frequently saved 
by such instruction at this stage and interest is certain to 
be excited. 

191. Since geometry is essentially a disciplinary study, 
those methods of teaching are best that most tend to de- 



Geometry. 71 

velop thought power in the pupils. Two things are essen- 
tial: 

1st. That the subject matter should be so prepared that 
it is difficult enough to call forth the best effort of the 
pupil, and yet sufficient help or suggestion should be given 
so as not to discourage him. 

2nd. When the lesson has been prepared by the pupil 
he should be thoroughly tested upon it by questions. He 
should be called upon, in the demonstration, for instance, 
to show the relation of each step to the others, the author- 
ity for each statement, the reason for the construction em- 
ployed, etc. In other words, he should succeed or fail in 
the recitation, as he stands or falls under a series of rig- 
orous questions. 

195. In the preparation of the lesson, independence should 
be encouraged. The minimum amount of growth is acquired 
by the pupil if he simply reads the author's demonstration 
and assents to it. Induce him as soon as possible to omit, 
in his reading, the author's quotation of authority, and to 
supply it himself from his knowledge of the subject. Ex- 
ercises adapted to the pupil's stage of advancement should 
be frequently given. 

196. It is an excellent plan to write out suggestions for 
the demonstration of one of the propositions of the lesson 
upon the blackboard, that may enable the pupil to work 
out a demonstration for himself; or, suggestions may be 
given for a difficult exercise, or for a demonstration differ- 
ent from the one given. 

197. If the pupils can be induced to be independent, dif- 
ferent demonstrations may be produced, when possible, 
and one student may arrive at more than one. The sug- 
gestions should be clear and adapted to the ability of the 
class. 

198. The student should be led to see that geometry 
is a logical body of thought, in a sense integral; that it 
does not consist of many unrelated propositions, but that 
each is dependent on others and that all have been built 



72 Geometry. 

up by the combination of a few axioms and simple demon- 
strated principles. 

199. In review a greater proportion of the work should 
be original. The time required for this kind of work is 
not easily estimated, and it is better to err on the side of 
generosity. Do not explain at the first difficulty, but let 
the proposition stand as a challenge to renewed effort. 

200. In a review recitation it is well at times to have a 
pupil give, accurately and in order, the propositions upon 
which a demonstration depends. A successful device to 
stimulate thought and give concentration is that of describ- 
ing the figure, lettering the lines and then calling upon 
some student to demonstrate orally from the mental picture 
he has made. One demonstration may serve to make the 
recitation for several pupils. 



CIVICS. 



201. The branches included in this section are so 
closely allied that they should be considered a harmoni- 
ous group and should be clearly and persistently related 
in the administration of any course of study. United States 
history and the constitutions are given a year's time on the 
supposition that the former has had at least that period 
in the grades below the high school. In no case, however, 
should that elementary work be considered as sufficient. 
United States history cannot be satisfactorily completed 
below the high school. 

202. The law requires the teaching of the constitution 
of the state and of the United States, but the subjects 
should be handled with some freedom. A dry and for- 
mal study of the documents themselves is not productive 
of that better education in American citizenship which the 
law intended to foster. 

203. The leading authorities in historical studies seem 
to consider that the desired results are best obtained by 
devoting the first half of the third year to ancient history 
and the latter half to English history, assuming that the 
teacher will always relate sufficient general history to that 
of the leading nations considered. The state university pre- 
fers that its students be prepared along that line. 

HISTORY. 

204. "The most precious things history has to offer 
may be missed by one who is chiefly employed in memo- 
rizing it. When history is viewed as an assemblage of 
unrelated facts, conquering it naturally takes the form of 
committing it to memory. When it is looked upon as a 



74 History. 

development, — a chain of causes and effects, — it appeals 
more directly to the reason and the understanding. Many, 
if not most, of the facts of history the pupil is destined 
to forget. He should be so trained, therefore, that when 
the unavoidable oblivion comes, he shall yet retain some- 
thing of interest in reading history, something of power 
in following up a line of ordinary investigation, some- 
thing of a disposition to seek for the underlying causes of 
events, something of a grasp of the mightier tendencies 
and movements of history, and some inkling of that con 
ception of history that makes it a teacher of the present 
out of the wealth of its past. " Hill's Introduction to Fiske's 
History of the U. S. 

GENERAL METHODS. 

205. Under this head are grouped a series of sugges- 
tions applicable alike to the teaching of any department in 
this branch. 

206. The instructor should aim (a) to leave in the stu- 
dent's mind a clear outline of important events in 
their relations to one another and some knowledge of the 
characteristics of each nation studied; (b) to develop the 
student's power of comparing facts and drawing infer- 
ences from them; (c) to stimulate the love of historical 
study. The simpler and clearer the methods used the bet- 
ter will be the results. 

207. The physical geography of the region should 
come first. Historical instruction, without the constant 
accompaniment of geograjmy, has no solid foundation. 
Attention should be called in advance to the way these 
physical features have affected the course of history, and 
the student should be encouraged to trace such influences 
in the case of individual nations. Egypt is an excellent 
example. 

20 8. Interest may be aroused by a judicious use of il- 
lustrative material. Good pictures are useful. Students 
should be encouraged to read articles in recent magazines. 
In the use of supplementary material care must be taken 



History. 75 

not to confuse or overload; the effort should be to whet 
the appetite, not to satiate. 

209. A pleasant recitation room brightened by pictures 
and filled with books is the proper home of successful 
teaching, and whatever will attract attention and retain in- 
terest is valuable. The dry and formal committal of a text is 
a waste of time and the disgust with historical studies which 
grows out of it is the only possible result. Better drop the 
study from the curriculum than to teach it in that way. If 
there are places of historic interest in the neighborhood, 
and Wisconsin has her share, visit them with the class 
and on the spot bring vividly to mind the scenes of thrill- 
ing interest that there transpired. If these are not acces- 
sible, some one in the class has visited such, localities and 
from him can be obtained interesting accounts which may 
be followed by questioning from the class and comment 
from the teacher. A visit to Chattanooga or to the halls 
of Congress would furnish striking opportunities for de- 
scription and could usually be illustrated by pictures and 
diagrams. The large cities have museums and art collec- 
tions and a visit »to these would be of immense value, as 
words and even pictures fail to give the vivid impression 
that a glance at a mummy-case and its inscriptions will 
convey. In many a village there are private collections 
which the owner would be delighted to exhibit to a class of 
pupils or to lend to an earnest teacher. Chronology and 
descriptive text may fail to excite interest, but graphic 
biography will always hold a class. The vitality of a great 
life seizes the hearer and the impressions thus made are .re- 
called vividly long after the dates fade from the memory. 
The lives of great men are not all of history and there 
come times when their relations to the world's progress 
must be clearly shown, but it is safe to assume that high 
school pupils are not all philosophers nor will they be in- 
terested at first in purely philosophical themes. 

210. In keeping with what has been said is the further 
advice to be contented only when several text-books are 
accessible. No one book covers the whole field, nor does 



76 History. 

it present different aspects equally well. Authors vary 
greatly and it is a teacher's business to discriminate 
among them, to show wherein one excels and what may be 
safely omitted from another. This multiplicity of texts 
need not be expensive. If the district furnishes the books 
several small sets can be bought as cheaply as one 
large one. If the pupils buy, the same need not be re- 
quired of all. Only the weak teacher finds difficulty where 
several authorities are used. 

211. There must be parallel readings outside the school 
text-books. These may be in strictly historical works or 
they may run into the domains of poetry and romance. 
While sometimes history may have been sacrificed slightly 
for the plot, and while the poet's license may have per- 
mitted him to distort facts occasionally, yet there are many 
novels and poems that portray the life of epochs as no his- 
torian's pen ever attempted. A study of the literature of 
a period may create an abiding interest in the times, while 
from a collection of poems dealing with an epoch many a 
fascinating recitation may be derived. 

212. What has been said so far implies a library. Books 
are to the student of history what wire and glass are to 
the physicist. Side by side with the furnishing of the 
laboratory comes the collection of a library. Ten dollars 
may start it, twenty will give a fair list of working authori- 
ties, while two hundred dollars will furnish a well- stocked 
library for class work. If the town affords a public library 
it should be freely used; private libraries are usually open 
to careful pupils, and if neither of these resources is at 
hand each pupil in the class may buy one good book or 
contribute something towards such a purchase. 

213. Elsewhere much is said about the tactics of the 
class room, but a few further hints may be added. Lect- 
ures by the teacher are not valuable except when briefly 
used to open a new field of investigation, or to prepare the 
way for a subsequent recitation. This does not exclude 
descriptions of places and events which have fallen under 



History. 77 

the teacher's own observation, or those which may serve 
to illuminate dark passages. 

214. Frequently upon the completion of a topic a writ- 
ten analysis may be prepared by a pupil, placed upon the 
board and subjected to the criticism of the class. The rela- 
tive importance of items in the classification, the omission 
of important things and the including of those of less value, 
the words and phrases in which the outline is couched 
should all be criticised. 

215. An occasional and painstaking bibliography of a 
subject is a good assignment of work for a pupil. The 
references should be classified, and clearly made to book, 
page and paragraph. If these are filed they will be of 
value to other pupils in the study of the same subject. 

216. In using the topical method, especially with classes 
new to the subject, great care must be taken to make the 
directions explicit. Occasionally it may be wise to send a 
pupil to a library to search for his material, but usually 
careful direction as to book, chapter and even page should 
be given. Weariness and disgust frequently come from the 
fruitless efforts of the tyro among books. Too broad a 
topic is discouraging and leads to slovenly investigation. 
If the teachers themselves are unfamiliar with the author- 
ities, little should be attempted. One or two well digested 
topics will be of infinitely more value than partially fruit- 
less attempts to consider a wide range of subjects. The 
teacher will soon find that he must cultivate the habit of 
rejection as well as of collection. When such topics are as- 
signed as can only be studied from original sources of in- 
formation this habit becomes of vital consequence. To 
those who have never tried the plan there will come sur- 
prises from the quantity of interesting records any com- 
munity affords when the pupils are set upon a course of 
investigation. Copies of charters and other public docu 
ments, newspaper files and old letters, records from the 
courts and the minutes of legislative bodies may all be 
consulted. Eye witnesses of stirring events will give their 
accounts and an opportunity for keen discrimination is 



78 History. 

offered in detecting how much of personal coloring is given 
to the narrative. Wisconsin is still young enough so that 
much of its local history may be compiled in this way. 
Care must be taken that there is no prying nor impertinent 
curiosity nor encouragement of petty gossip. Each pupil 
should have his special topic, and when fully completed it 
should be safely filed in a convenient place for public con- 
sultation. No attempt should be made to give each indi- 
vidual in the class the same work, nor can the work of 
succeeding years be indentical. It is not a search for the 
accumulation of facts, but a training in the habit of invest- 
igation and of the powers of discrimination and of reason, 
and, frequently the value of the discipline cannot be 
measured by tangible results. The history of the school, 
of local organizations, of literary and other societies, of the 
class of which the pupil is a member, of the growth of 
prominent industries in the locality and other minor topics 
of this nature are not without their value in training the 
historical sence. 

And, lastly, the teacher should bear in mind that life 
and animation are the characteristics of the successful 
class in history and that he must look to himself as the 
cause of the listless, half-rebellious attitude which charac- 
terizes the class of whom is required only the mechanical 
absorption of the facts of a school text. 

UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

217. One of the chief aims of the teacher of history is 
to create an abiding interest in the study. It is not so im- 
portant how many facts are acquired as how much interest 
is awakened. Interest will certainly result in wide read- 
ing and much knowledge will thus be gained. Anecdotes 
should not be the exclusive means to attract attention in the 
high school. The year's work should have constant refer- 
ence to governmental development and should be constantly 
related to the study of civil government. The history of 
the United States cannot be studied alone. Our relations 



History-. 79 

with England and with the nations of Europe have had an 
important influence in determining the course of events, 
and these relations should be clearly set forth by the 
teacher. It is not wise to leave this for the year in gen- 
eral history. By anticipating, nothing is lost but more of 
unity is given to the entire historical course. 

218. There should be careful topical study of the na- 
tion's growth in population, in territorial domain, in the 
means of inter-communication, in financial ability, in edu- 
cational facilities and in moral power. Events that have 
hindered the progress of the nation should be considered. 
The presidents were results, not causes, and all do not de- 
serve equal consideration, nor the complimentary notice of 
a definite location in one's memory. If the caution against 
teaching too many things is needed anywhere it is in the 
history of our own land. If anywhere the trivial is apt to be 
ranked with the important, it is here where time has not 
lent its powerful perspective and where text-books vie 
with each other in gathering every incident that may pos" 
sibly be remembered. 

219. To close the year, comes the review wherein each 
may see what all have done and during whichone may stand 
where he can obtain a bird's-eye view of the whole histori- 
cal landscape. Two helpful substitutes forthe ordinary 
review may be mentioned. In one the pupilis given an 
entire subject, as, for instance, the New England Colo- 
nies. To make from this topic a fluent recitation that 
holds the interest of all pupils, though the subject is 
familiar, 'will be a delight to any pupil. When the recita- 
tation is finished it is criticised as to matter and manner, 
the language, the attitude and intonation of the reciter, as 
well as historical matter, all coming under fire. The sec- 
ond device consists of a raking fire of short, sharp questions 
for a few moments in each recitation. To these a prompt, 
direct answer is required. The purpose of this is to give 
the pupils the power of quickly and accurately recalling 
the substance of their previous lessons, and to fix the 
whole indelibly upon the mind. The tendency of labora- 



80 History. 

tory or seminary methods is to make the special work done 
by the pupil, seem unduly prominent, or to give him dis- 
connected and discordant ideas. The proper scope of the 
review is to unify the work of the year. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 

220. The time devoted to oriental history must neces- 
sarily be short. Emphasis should be laid on the chrono- 
logical succession of the great oriental empires, the 
characteristics of each, and the contributions that each 
has made to the history of civilization. The teacher should 
guard against the notion that any of the eastern nations 
can properly be studied by itself; attention should con- 
stantly be called to their relations to one another and to 
the elements of unity in their history. Thus the sojourn 
of the Hebrews in Egypt may serve to connect Egyptian 
history with the history of Israel. The overthrow of the 
Jewish kingdoms by Assyria and Babylon connects them 
with the history of the Mesopotamian kingdoms. Chaldea, 
Assyria and Babylon should be studied in succession. The 
conquests of Persia may be made the basis of a review of 
the other oriental kingdoms; a diagram may easily be pre- 
pared to assist in the review. Phoenicia should be studied 
last as the great middle-nation of antiquity, the colonizers 
and traders who connected the oriental nations with one 
another and carried their civilization to Greece and the 
West. 

221. The history of Greece should be approached from 
the east. The student should compare for himself the 
eastern and western shores of Greece, and see how the 
islands and harbors of the Aegean invited civilization across 
from Phoenicia and Asia Minor. He should see on the 
map the causes which kept the Greeks disunited and made 
them a sea-faring people. (No spot in Greece is more 
than forty miles from the sea. With one- tenth the area, 
Greece has as many miles of sea coa^t as Spain and Por- 
tugal.) A suggestive way of looking at Greek history is to 
divide it into three periods : the early ages of migration 



History. 81 

and colonization; the period of the internal development 
of the various states, and the epoch of Philip and Alex- 
ander. In the first period the Greeks were settling the 
mainland of Greece and sending colonies with the rudi- 
ments of civilization into the Aegean, the Black- Sea and 
the western Mediterranean. Then came a long period of 
internal development, of intensive rather than extensive 
life, during which the Greeks lived to themselves and had 
little to do with foreign nations, although it was the re- 
sults of their growth in this period that exercised most in- 
fluence on later times. It was the age of Pericles, Phidias 
and Sophocles; it was also an age of bitter wars among 
the Greek states. The supremacy was held in succession 
by Athens, Sparta and Thebes until their jealousies pre- 
pared the way for the rise of Macedon. Finally, the con- 
quests of Philip and Alexander spread Greek civilization 
over the East, and the arts and learning of conquered 
Greece took captive her Roman conquerors. 

222. Roman history should be studied in the light of 
general history. It should be noted that just as Greece 
looks towards the east, Rome is turned to the west and left 
its greatest influence on the peoples of western Europe. 
The Greek contributions to civilization were largely in the 
realms of art and literature; the Roman, in the field of law 
and government. The student should get a clear idea of 
the widening of Roman dominion from the little Latin hill 
town to Italy, and finally to the whole Mediterranean world. 
The economic and social changes that accompanied this 
growth from a city community to a world empire are in- 
structive. It should be made clear that the important 
period of Roman history does not terminate with the life 
of the republic, and that some of the most significant phases 
of Roman influence and power began then. It was under 
the empire that Rome unified the heterogeneous peoples she 
had conquered, gave them a common system of law, a com- 
mon religion, a common language, and thus made her in- 
fluence permanent. The only unity Europe had in the 
Middle Ages came from Roman sources. The so-called fall 
6 



82 History. 

of Rome is really one of the best illustrations of the con- 
tinuity of history. 

223. Since many students derive all their knowledge of 
Greek and Roman civilization from their study of ancient 
history they should be taught as much concerning the life, 
art and literature of the Greeks and Romans as the time 
will allow. Pictures of Greek statutes and Roman build- 
ings should be shown. Good illustrative material may be 
found in works on mythology, such as Guerber's Myths of 
Greece and Rome (American Book Company), and Gayley's 
Classic Myths (Ginn), and on private life, such as Mahaffy's 
Old Greek Life and Wilkins' Roman Antiquities (American 
Book Company), and Preston and Dodge's Private Life of 
the Romans (Leach, Shewell & Sanborn). Pupils should be 
encouraged to read classical history. Selections from 
Herodotus and Plutarch generally appeal to young people. 
Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome, though they rest on tra- 
dition, give expression to much of the old Roman spirit. 

"There is nothing like the magic charm, whether of sub- 
limity or pathos that poetry lends to historical events, per- 
sons and places." 

224. Illustrations alone are not sufficient to give reality 
to a period of history; a picture, however vivid, may be as 
unreal as a dream. The student should compare ancient 
events and persons with modern events and persons that 
he may see that the Greeks and Romans do not live in the 
pages of a text book alone, but that they had a real flesh 
and blood existence like his own. He should come to look 
at history not; as a panorama of unconnected pictures, but 
as the record of gradual human development. 

ENGLISH HISTORY. 

225. Where general history is not taught the chief 
events in the history of Europe should be briefly described 
in connection with English history. Thus the work may 
begin with a study of Britain before the Romans. The 
Roman conquest and occupation should be connected with 
the Roman empire. The Saxon invasions of the fifth cent- 



History. 83 

ury should be considered in connection with Germanic 
invasions in general, and the results in England and on 
the Continent compared. Something may be said of Charle- 
magne and of the Saracen empire. Study of the Danish 
and Norman conquests should be preceded by an account 
of the migrations of the Northmen. Feudalism, the Cru- 
sades, the controversy between Pope and Emperor, the 
rise of towns, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the 
Thirty Years' War, and other great European movements 
may in the same way be brought into relation with the 
history of England. The students will thus get a clear 
idea of the history of a single country — and that the most 
important for an American, next to his own — and at the 
same time will learn something of the general history of 
Europe without being confused by the stories of too many 
nations and events. 

DEFECTS IN PREPARATION. 

226. The following have been pointed out as defects 
found in the preparation in history of students entering 
the University of Wisconsin, and are given here as indirect 
suggestions of methods: 

First. A lack of geographical knowledge. If the rela- 
tion of physical and political geography to history were 
emphasized there would be much gain for both subjects. 

Second. The text book rather than the subject has been 
taught. Use should be made of the topical method and of 
general outside reading, although not to the exclusion of 
the text-book. 

Third. Failure to select what is vital and to omit what 

is trivial. On this point Prof. Emerton, of Harvard, well 

says: 

" It is important that a certain number of dates should 
be learned accurately and solidly. The danger here is that 
much may be required, and the pupil's mind be thus 
burdened with a mass of information the meaning of which 
he cannot understand. Require at first but few dates, but 
let these be such as mark great crises of history. Others 
may then be grouped about these, and will never be for- 



84 History. 

gotten so long as the central dates are remembered. Do 
not ask pupils to learn lists of rulers, because rulers have 
not generally been the most important makers of history. 
It may be urged that the names of rulers form convenient 
pegs on which to hang our historical knowledge, but we 
can generally find better pegs. " 

Fourth. The attempt to do too much. 

REFERENCE BOOKS. 

227. For Teachers: 

History Topics for the High School and College, W. F. Allen. 

Methods of Teaching History, Hall, editor. The latter is a 
collection of essays by representative teachers of history 
and contains an excellent bibliography. Both these are 
published by D. C. Heath & Co. of Boston. 

Reference History of the United States, Davidson. Ginn & 
Co. 

How to Study and Teach History, Hinsdale. (Interna- 
tional Education Series. Appleton). 

A Pathfinder in American History, Gordy and Twitchell. 
Lee & Shepard. 

Study of Local History in Wisconsin Schools, R. G. Thwaites. 
Published in theWisconsin Journal of Education, for Novem- 
ber, 1888. 

Allen's Reader's Guide to English History. Ginn & Co. 
Boston and Chicago. 

228. In American History: 
Fiske's Discovery of America, 2 vols. 
Fiske's Beginnings of New England. 
Fiske's American Revolution, 2 vols. 
Fiske's Critical Period of American History. 
Fiske's Civil Government in the United States. 

These works of Mr. Fiske, which are published by 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and Chicago, are espe- 
cially useful to the teacher because of the attention paid to 
causal connections, and because of the fascinating method 
of presentation. They cover the period to the Republic, 
excepting the Southern and Middle Colonies, and the history 
of the eighteenth century to the Revolution. 



History. 85 

Roosevelt, Tlie Winning of the West, 2 vols., New York, 
G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

Thwaites, Story of Wisconsin, Boston, D. Lothrop Co. 
(Valuable for the study of local history.) 

Mead (editor), Old South Leaflets, D. C. Heath & Co. 

Hart & Channing (editors) American History Leaflets, New 
York, A. Lovell & Co. 

The above leaflets contain extracts from important orig- 
inal documents, and are published at about 5 cents a copy. 

Sheldon Barnes, Studies in American History, Chicago, 
Heath & Co., contains many extracts from contemporary 
documents. 

The works of Parkman, Bancroft, Schouler, Adams, 
Doyle and Curtis will be found useful for reference. 

The American Statesmen Series and the American Common- 
wealth Series, (both published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 
Boston and Chicago) afford opportunities for enriching the 
library at slight expense. 

An excellent series, covering the whole period of Ameri- 
can history, is the Epochs of American History, published by 
Longmans, Green & Co. It includes The Colonies, by R. G. 
Thwaites; Formation of the Union, by A. B. Hart; and 
Division and Reunion, by Woodrow Wilson. The Colonial 
Era, by G. P. Fisher, and The French War and the Revolu- 
tion, by W. M. Sloane, are the first of the five volumes of 
a similar American History Series published by Scribners. 

229. A convenient general historical atlas for schools 
is that of Labberton, published by Silver, Burdett & Co., 
Boston and Chicago. Students of English History should 
have access to Gardiner's School Atlas of English History, 
Longmans. In American history, Hart's Epoch Maps, pub- 
lished by Longmans, is very good. The teacher would do 
well to own Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe. 

230. In General History: 

Adams. Manual of Historical Literature, New 

York, Harpers. 
Andrews. Institutes of General History, Silver 
Wilson. The State, Heath. 



86 History. 

There are various series from which selections may be 
made to enlarge the library of general history. Such are 
the Epochs Series (Longmans) and the Story of the Nations 
Series (Putnam). 

231. In A nc ien t Histo ry: 

Oman. History of Greece, Longmans. 
Allen. Short History of the Roman People, Ginn. 
Fowler. The City- State of the Greeks and Romans , 
Macmillan. 

232 . In History of Middle Ages: 

Emerton. Introduction to the Middle Ages, Boston, 

Ginn. 
Duruy. History of the Middle Ages, New York, 

Henry Holt & Co. 
Adams. Civilization During the Middle Ages, Scrib- 

ners. 
Myers. Mediaeval and Modern History, Ginn. 
Murdock. The Reconstruction of Europe, Houghton. 
Duruy. History of Modern Times. 

233. In History of France and England. 

Duruy. History of France, New York, T. Y. 
Crowell & Co. 

Gardner. A Student's History of England (Illus- 
trated), Longmans. 

Green. Short History of the English People, Harpers 



CONSTITUTIONS. 

234. What knowledge is of most worth here? The an- 
swer to this question may be indicated by asking another. 
What will the citizen need and what would be most apt to 
act as an inspiration to good citizenship? Manifestly one 
cannot be a good citizen unless he has a fair knowledge of 
the elementary principles underlying our government. 
These may be taught by specific examples and illustrations, 
may be acquired and fixed by intelligently relating them 
to the history of the times from which they took their ori- 



History. 87 

gin. In the light of history the full meaning of prin- 
ciples may be seen. The year devoted to United States 
history and constitutions (7, 8, 9) should not be broken up 
by the fast lines that mark the divisions of the course of 
study. It may be considered that the two subjects are 
parallel or homogeneous throughout, and a unity of pur- 
pose should pervade the work of the year. 

235. The machinery of the government, a knowledge of 
the essentials of which is so important in the practical polit- 
ical life of every citizen, may be constantly studied in con- 
nection with the town, municipality and state as the times 
for voting and for the meeting of the legislative bodies 
approach. The operation of laws in daily life should be 
illustrated and no pains spared to bring them to the knowl- 
edge of the pupil. 

236. Two general systems of teaching are in practice 
through the state, each of which may be considered rea- 
sonable and successful when well handled. By the first 
the student begins his specific work by study of the local 
government, and broadens his field of vision by examining 
in turn the county, state and nation. In the other method 
the subject is approached from the domain of history and 
the work is begun with the government of the country as 
a whole, as based upon the constitution of the United 
States. Following this come the various modifications 
which have crept into state governments, particularly that 
of Wisconsin, while the study of county and town is left 
to the last. Whichever general system is adopted the spe- 
cific methods in use should be varied and impressive. The 
constitutions themselves should be studied and the parts 
which are of vital importance may be memorized, but the 
documents as wholes are not inspiring. 

237. To comply with the law the constitution of the 
United States and of the state must both be studied. Each 
should be viewed in the light of the other, giving the 
greater attention to that which is of fundamental impor- 
tance, the constitution of the United States. If the princi- 
ples of this be understood, the work on that of the state 



88 History. 

can be largely devoted to pointing out the things which a 
local government has made necessary, the places in which 
the law comes more nearly to the individual, and the vari- 
ety of subjects taken up which are not included in the 
more general document. 

238. The subject of government in the abstract is diffi- 
cult and needs so much of illustration that there should 
be no erring on the side of slavery to the text-book. 
The government of our own country may be better under- 
stood by comparing it with those of foreign nations. Here 
the relation to general history is apparent. England 
gives an example of a parliamentary system different from 
ours. France, though republican in name, is far more 
highly centralized, while the Swiss govern themselves. 
The peculiarities of each of these plans should be under- 
stood. 

239. There may be debates, reports of legislative 
meetings, moot courts and legislatures. The topical 
method will be found largely helpful. Congressional re- 
ports, legislative journals and newspaper articles should 
be consulted in relation to pertinent questions. Too mi- 
nute directions might prove to be a hindrance, for the 
course of action pursued must be largely dependent upon 
the facilities offered by the community in which the school 
is located. Some of the more recent texts will render val- 
uable assistance, especially where there are reasons for 
using that which adheres to the older and narrower con- 
ceptions of the subject. As in history, a variety of books 
is extremely desirable. It is not necessary that the body 
of knowledge possessed by any pupil should be identical 
with that which another has. Fiske's Civil Government, 
Dole's American Citizen, and successive copies of the Blue 
Book should be at hand. 



Political Economy. 89 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

240. The study of political economy will be chiefly use- 
ful to pupils in a high school as an introduction to the 
serious and thoughtful consideration of the practical af- 
fairs of life. Its purpose is not so much to present a body 
of knowledge as to form a habit and give a basis of esti- 
mating economic values and results. To many persons the 
statement that values originate in labor, and that wealth 
represents services performed, comes at first as a great 
novelty. The full realization of the truth and of its bear- 
ing on various ways of money getting current in society, 
comes not from memorizing the text, but from an abun- 
dance of illustrations brought out in the class-room, with 
the usual accompanying comment and criticism. Possibly 
no other study in the course so urgently demands the con- 
versational method of conducting a recitation, and can so 
ill endure the verbal memorizing of text-books. 

241. Pupils who have studied the condition affecting the 
production of wealth, including the division of labor, the con- 
sequent frequent separation of the capitalist from the la- 
borer and the growth of combinations on each side, should be 
better able to read intelligently the current discussions 
of the "labor problem" in leading journals and magazines. 
If they are led to read such discussions of important ques- 
tions and to subject the articles to the test of measurement 
by the principles stated and accepted previously, there 
may be less satisfaction with dogmatic statements, but 
there should result a wider interest in human affairs and 
current news, wibh a broader toleration of divergent views. 
Established facts and accepted theories may be made in- 
telligible by copious illustrations. Teachers may make 
clear what facts and principles are involved in the settle- 
ment of any controverted subject, but should avoid all 
fruitless discussion. Pupils must learn what taxes are, 
what kinds are known, what arguments are advanced to 
support them, how their imposition or removal may affect 



90 Suggestive Recommendations. 

industries; but all debates having personal or political ten- 
dencies are unfortunate. There is no place in a public 
school for partisanship or propagandism. 



A SUGGESTIVE RECOMMENDATION. 

Extracts from the Report of a subcommittee of the Board 
of Visitors to the University for the year 1893-4 : 

Your committee are of the opinion, based upon the foregoing facts, that 
the accredited schools are better equipped for leading students to the 
threshold of the General Science and Engineering courses than to enter the 
Classical courses. While they do not underestimate the importance of the 
Scientific and Industrial courses, they regret that our Secondary Schools 
do not meet the reasonable demands of the university as regards English, 
Greek, Latin, German and French. They are of the opinion that the study 
of Greek and Latin under juiicious and quali&el instructors cultivates 
the memory, educates the reason, develops the judgment, exercises the 
taste and imagination, and give? precision in the use of language to a 
greater degree, in less time, than like results can be obtained by the 
study of any other branches of human knowledge. 

They agree with the late President Porter of Yale University: "If a youth 
is to be a ship carpenter, an optician, a practical engineer, or to pass his 
days in the details of some mechanical employment" in such cases a class- 
ical education may fairly be regarded as misplaced. But if the object of cult- 
ure is to give a man the use of his faculties in their mo3t serviceable state, 
to render him an intelligent and influential member of the community, 
then there is "in the dispassionate judgment of philosophy" no other 
method of training the mind better than that which take3 classical instruc- 
tion for the ground work. It is true that Greek and Latin are called the 
dead languages, but, as Hobbes expresses it "they have put off flesh and 
blood only to put on immortality." Nor do your committee undervalue 
the importance and utility of German, French and Anglo-Saxon. They 
recognize the fact that a man needs some knowledge of these as well as of 
the Greek and Latin to enable him to use an English Dictionary. 

In conclusion your committee would suggest to the Board of Visitors the 
following: 

Fourth: That no school be placed upon the accredited list in the pro- 
gramme of which English is not taught at least four hours a week during the 
four years' course, and that energetic, and if necessary, drastic means be 
adopted to secure at least respectable attainments in spelling, composi- 
tion, and legible writing before admitting a student to any College of the 
university. 



PART III 



LAWS AND COMMENTS, 



THE FREE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM. 



242. The statutes relating to high schools are given in 
consecutive order, and bear numbers to correspond with 
the same sections in Sanborn & Berryman's Annotated 
Statutes. The catch words introducing the sections, and 
some references to court decisions are, by permission of 
the editors, taken from the same source. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF FREE HIGH SCHOOLS. 

243. How established -Not to apply where— Section 

490. (As amended by Ch. 2^5, 1879.) Any town or incorpo- 
rated village or city or school district, which contains 
within its limits an incorporated village, or which has a 
graded school of not less than two departments, with not 
less than twenty-five pupils prepared to begin a high 
school course, may establish and maintain not exceeding 
two high schools, in the manner and with the privileges 
herein provided. The question of establishing such 
schools may be submitted by the town, school district or 
village board, or common council, at any annual or duly 
called special meeting, or election, upon written resolution 
therefor, proposed for adoption: provided, notice of such 
purpose embodying such resolution, be given in the man- 
ner provided for notifying a special district meeting, town 
meeting, or charter election. The vote shall be taken by 
ballot, and canvassed according to the statutes for con- 
ducting elections in such municipality, those ballots in fa- 
vor being written or printed "For high school;" those op- 
posed, "Against high school. " If the resolution be adopted, 
such towns, school district, village or city shall con- 
stitute a high school district. But no city, incorporated 
village or school district in which a high school heretofore 
established has been reported, recognized and aided as a 
free high school, shall be required to take any vote on the 
resolution provided for in this section, but may continue 
to report and to receive aid on due compliance with the 
law in other respects. 280. 281. 1. 



Laws and Comments. 93 

244. Towns may unite in establishing — Section 491. 
Two or more adjoining towns may unite in establishing and 
maintaining any such high school. The resolution pro- 
posing the same shall be approved and submitted, and the 
notice of election signed by at least two supervisors of each 
town, and the election shall be notified and conducted in 
each town as provided in the preceding section. Such res- 
olution shall not be adopted unless a majority of the votes 
cast in each town be in favor thereof. The votes shall be 
canvassed at the first election and all subsequent elections 
in the several towns, as at town meetings; and the super- 
visors of the several towns proposing to unite shall, within 
one week after such elections, meet and canvass the votes 
and certify the result to the town clerk of each town. If 
such resolution be adopted, the several towns so voting to 
unite shall constitute a joint high school district. 

245. State aid, how obtained — Section 491a. (Sec. 1, Ch. 
352, 1885.) Whenever any town in which no graded schcol 
exists or when any two adjoining towns in which no graded 
school exists, shall vote to establish and maintain a free 
high school, as provided in sections 490 and 491, revised 
statutes, and such free high school shall have been estab- 
lished and maintained in the manner now provided by law 
for establishing and maintaining free high schools, for at 
least three months, and when the high school board of 
such town, or of such two towns adjoining which unite to 
maintain such school, shall make the report required by 
section 496, revised statutes, in order to obtain the aid fur- 
nished by the state of Wisconsin, in the maintaining free 
high schools, they shall append thereto a certificate, to the 
effect that such school is established and maintained in a 
town or by towns wherein no graded school exists. 

246. Schools classified — Amount of state aid— Section 
4916. (Sec. 2, Ch. 352, 1885.) Upon receiving the reports and 
appended certificate provided for in section 1, of this act, it 
shall be the duty of the state superintendent to make a 
separate and distinct class of the schools thus established 
and maintained in towns where no graded schools exist, 
and each such school shall be entitled to receive from the 
general fund of the state annually, one- half the amount 
actually expended for instruction in such school, and the 
state superintendent shall fix the amount to be paid to each 
of said high schools and certify the same to the secretary 
of state, at the same time and in the same manner as he is 
now required to fix the amount to be paid to high school 
districts, and certify the same to the secretary of state. 
On such certificate, at any time after the first day of De- 
cember, the same shall be paid to the district treasurer out 
of the state treasury; but the whole amount so paid shall 
not exceed twenty-five thousand dollars in any one year to 



94 The Free High School System. 

this class of free high schools, and if more is demanded by- 
such districts, they shall be paid proportionally. The 
secretary of state shall annually include and apportion in 
the state tax all such sums as shall have been so paid, in 
addition to the amount authorized to be paid in aid of free 
high schools by section 496, revised statutes, and in addi- 
tion to all other sums to be levied for the year. 

2-47. The principal purpose of the first act was to encourage the establish- 
ment and maintenance of free high schools in towns where there are none 
but ungraded district schools. But few of these towns took advantage of 
the assistance thus tendered, and the remainder of the appropriation is now 
devoted to the high schools established in connection with graded 
schools. 

248. Five different organizations are authorized to establish and main- 
tain free high schools, to wit: a town, two or more towns, an incorporated 
village, a city and a school district containing a village or a graded school 
of two or more departments. 

249. The first step in organizing any one of these schools is the posting 
of notices of a purpose to vote on the question of the adoption of the sys- 
tem, as specified in Paragraph 243. The town board, village board, dis- 
trict board, or the common council of the city, must notify the electors of 
a purpose to hold an election for voting on the resolution that is recited in 
the notice. When two or more towns purpose to unite in establishing a 
free high school at least two members of each board interested must sign 
the notices. (244) 

250. The second step is to take the popular vote by ballot, and if a 
majority of the ballots cast read " For high school," the resolution must be 
declared carried and the action should be recorded. A director, a treas- 
urer and a clerk should be elected, in conformity to Sec. 492. But in 
single districts the district board becomes ex-ofncio the free high school 
board, and in cities that are not under the jurisdiction of county super- 
intendents, the board of education likewise becomes the free high school 
board. When two or more towns unite in forming a free high school dis- 
trict a special election of free high school officers must be held subsequent 
to the vote on the organization of the high school. Due notices of such 
election must be posted by the respective town boards. 

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FREE HIGH SCHOOLS. 

251. Officers — Terms — When existing- boards to be offi- 
cers — Section 492. (As amended by Sec. 2, Gh. 245, 1879.) The 
officers of each such district shall be a director, treasurer 
and clerk, whose term of office shall be each three years 
beginning with the annual town meeting and until his suc- 
cessor shall have been chosen or appointed ; provided, that 



Laws and Comments. 95 

at the first election the clerk shall be chosen for one year, 
the treasurer for two years, and the director for three 
years; and all of said officers may be chosen first at the 
same election at which the question of establishing a high 
school is submitted, to take their offices, if the resolution 
therefor be adopted. Thereafter such officers shall be 
elected at the annual town meeting or charter election. 
The votes cast shall be canvassed, and the results declared 
and certified, as provided in the preceding sections. But in 
all cities not under a county superintendent, which now 
constitute free high school districts, or which shall hereafter 
adopt the resolution provided for in section four hundred 
and ninety, and become free high school districts, the board 
of education in each such city shall be the high school 
board, and the city treasurer shall be ex-offlcio the treasurer 
of the high school district, unless the board of education 
embraces a treasurer; and in all districts maintaining a 
graded school of not less than two departments, which now 
constitute free high school districts, or which shall here- 
after adopt said resolution, the district board in each such 
district shall be the high school board; and the district 
treasurer shall be the treasurer of the high school district. 
252. Duties of officers — Bond — Report — Section 493. 
(As amended by Sec. 3, Gh. 245, 1879.) The officers aforesaid shall 
constitute the high school board, and as such board and as 
such officers shall conduct the affairs of such high school 
district on the same general plan provided for a school 
district, and shall have and possess, with respect to such 
high school district, all the powers, including all such as may 
be conferred by vote of a district meeting, and be charged 
with all the duties, conferred and imposed in these statutes 
on the district officers and district board of a school dis- 
trict, applicable to such high school district; the treasurer 
shall give a like bond, to be approved and filed in a similar 
manner. The high school district clerk shall make a simi- 
lar report to that provided in section four hundred and six- 
ty-two, omitting the first subdivision. They may grade such 
school, and establish the branches of study to be taught 
therein, under the advice of the state superintendent Every 
forfeiture and punishment enacted against neglect or viola- 
tion of duty in a school district officer, shall be held equally 
to apply to a high school district officer for like neglect or 
violation. The reports of free high schools in cities not un- 
der a county superintendent shall be included in the reports 
from such cities to the state superintendent, made by the 
city superintendent or clerk of the board of education. 

253. The officers, if elected, are to bear the same names and are elected 
for the same terms as like officers in school districts. In cities independent 
of the county superintendent, the board of education, and in single districts 



96 The Free High School System, 

the district board, becomes the free high school board, without action on 
the part of the people at the time of voting on the adoption of the system. 
254. The duties of the several officers and of the boards are similar to 
those of district officers and boards. The clerk is to report directly to the 
county superintendent, but in cities independent of that officer, the report 
must be made by the city superintendent or by the board of education, and 
incorporated in the report of other matters to the state superintendent. 
Section 495 (268) provides for a financial report to be made in duplicate 
for each free high school directly to the state superintendent 

255. Schools free— Qualifications of Principal — Course 

of study— Section 494. {Sec. 4, ('It. 245, 1879, Gh. 146, 
1881, and Gh. 44."), 1891.) All such high schools shall be 
free to all pupils resident in the district. Every principal 
of any high school hereafter elected or appointed, shall in 
addition to his qualifications as teacher of a common school, 
be a graduate of some university, college or normal school, 
or shall hold a state certificate, or shall pass an examina- 
tion in the studies required to b9 taught in any such school ; 
provided, the state certificates authorized by the laws of 
Wisconsin, and the certificates authorized by section 1, of 
chapter 242, of the laws of 1885, as amending chapter 325, 
of the laws of 1883, shall legally qualify their holders, 
both as principals and as teachers of common schools; and 
each principal and each assistant teacher in a free high 
school shall be eligible to teach only on approval of his 
certificate by the state superintendent; and the high school 
boards or boards of education having charge of such schools, 
shall determine, with the advice and consent of the state 
superintendent, the course of study and minimum standard 
of qualifications for admission to the same. 1. 13. 10. 

256. The state superintendent will require each assistant in such schools 
to furnish evidence of his qualifications to teach every branch assigned 
him in the school course. Every assistant in a free high school who does 
not hold a state certificate or a countersigned diploma should therefore 
secure the superintendent's approval of his qualifications before the 
beginning of the fall term of school. Only thus can he make a legal 
contract, or the school be entitled to the aid provided by law. Each 
assistant should send to the state superintendent, to ba approved, the 
highest certificate the local authority is authorized to issue, and which 
continues in force during the time for which he wishes his certificate. 
Should he desire to teach branches that are not included in this certifi- 
cate, he should secure standings before the state board of examiners. 

Diplomas from reputable colleges and state normal schools not in the 
state will receive due credit if accompanied by proper certificates. 

257. Chapter 156 of the laws of 1893, so intimately re- 
lates to the high schools, that it is inserted here. 1. 10. 
255. 



Laws and Comments. 97 



DIPLOMAS. 



258. Wisconsin colleges, university and normal schools 
— When a legal license to teach— Section 1 (Chapter 156). 
Any diploma which, by law the state superintendent is 
authorized to countersign, and which, when so counter- 
signed, has the force and effect of an unlimited state certif- 
icate to teach in the common schools of the state, shall 
constitute a legal license to teach in any public school in 
the state without further examination, for such period from 
the date of issuance of said diploma, as, by existing laws, 
the holder thereof is required to teach before said diploma 
may be countersigned by the state superintendent. 

259. Certificate from normal schools — When a legal li- 
cense — Section 2. A certificate from the elementary course 
of the normal schools shall constitute a legal license to teach 
for one year in any common school without further exam- 
ination; provided, that a limited state certificate and a cer- 
tificate from the elementary course of the normal schools 
shall not qualify the holder as principal of a free high 
school having a four years' course of study. 

260. Diplomas from other colleges and universities — 
when countersigned. — Section 3. After any person has 
graduated at any incorporated college or university, whose 
courses of study are fully and fairly equivalent to the corres- 
ponding courses of study in the state university, and after 
such graduation has successfully taught a public school for 
sixteen school months, the state superintendent shall have 
authority to countersign the diploma of such teacher, after 
such examination as to moral character, learning and abil- 
ity to teach as to said superintendent may seem proper 
and reasonable, and after having ascertained that the course 
of study from which such person has graduated is fully 
and fairly equal to the corresponding course in the state 
university. 

261. Countersigned diplomas, qualifications to teach. — 
Section 4. Any person holding a diploma granted by any 
such aforesaid college or university, certifying that the 
person holding the same is a graduate of such college or 
university, shall, after his diploma has been countersigned 
by the state superintendent, as aforesaid, be deemed quali- 
fied to teach any of the public schools of the state, and 
such diploma shall be a certificate of such qualification, 
until annulled by the state superintendent. 

262. Certificates from other states — when counter- 
signed. — Section 5. Teachers' certificates, granted by 
other states, which are fully and fairly equivalent to the 
Wisconsin unlimited certificate, may be countersigned by 
the state superintendent. The holder of such certificate 
shall furnish to the state superintendent such evidence of 

7 



98 The Free High School System. 

good moral character, experience and success in teaching 
as is required for the unlimited state certificate. When 
countersigned, such certificates shall have the .'"orce and 
effect of the unlimited state certificate. 

263. Section 6. All acts or parts of acts in conflict 
with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. 

264. The only diplomas that the state superintendent was authorized to 
countersign at the time of the passage of this act were those granted by 
Wisconsin universities, colleges and normal schools. The reference in 
Sec. 1, can, therefore, include only such diplomas. Graduates of the state 
university, specified under section 458c, Sanborn & Berryman (p. 66, c ode), 
and graduates of the normal schools may have their diplomas counter- 
signed by the state superintendent after one year's successful teaching in 
the public schools of the state subsequent to graduation. Graduates of the 
state university, mentioned under Sec. 387. and the graduates of Wiscon- 
sin institutions recognized under chap. 209, laws of 1880, may have their 
diplomas countersigned after two years' successful teaching as indicated 
above. Satisfactory testimonials as prescribed by law, will be required. 
The diplomas specified in the first case constitute a valid certificate for one 
year. Those in class two constitute a valid certificate for two years. 

205. It .should be noted that the diplomas of normal schools located 
without the state are not included in the provisions of this law. The hold- 
ers of such diplomas must obtain legal qualifications as teachers of com- 
mon schools before they can make a valid contract to teach in a public 
school. 

266. Taxes, how apportioned — Payments, how made. — 

Section 495. The high school board shall, annually, on or 
before the second Monday in September, meet and determine 
the amount necessary to be raised by tax for the support of 
such high school, and certify the same to the proper tow n, 
city or village clerk; if a joint high school district, they 
shall certify to the town clerk of each town, the propor- 
tionate amount thereof to be raised by such town, such pro- 
portion to be determined according to the total valuation 
of all the taxable property in such town as equalized by the 
town boards of review. Such tax shall be assessed on the 
next tax roll by such clerk or other officer making the same, 
and collected and returned as other taxes, and paid to the 
high school-district treasurer. Such moneys shall be paid 
out only on orders drawn and countersigned as prescribed 
in case of school districts. Any town which is a single 
high school district may, by resolution adopted at the 
annual town meeting limit the amount to be raised for high 
school purposes in such town, during such year. In case 
of a joint high school-district, the town boards of the sev- 
e ral towns embraced may, by a joint resolution adopted by 



Laws and Comments. 99 

all such town boards before the first day of July, likewise 
limit the amount to be raised in such district. 

2G7. The certificate of the amount of tax necessary to be raised is to be 
made in September. Towns having a high school may, by vote, limit 
the amount of tax, and the tax in joint high school-districts may be like- 
wise limited by the town boards; but otherwise the amount of annual tax 
levy for this purpose is finally determined by the board. 

268. State aid, amount of, how obtained — Levy of taxes 

for — Section 496. (As amended by Sec. 5, Ch. 245, 1879, 
Ch. 273, 1883, Ch. U20, 1885, Ch. 466, 1889, end Ch. 332, 1891.) 
Any high school district which shall have established a 
free high school, according to the provisions of these stat- 
utes, and shall have maintained the same for not less than 
three months in any school year, shall be entitled to re- 
ceive from the general fund of the state, annually, one-half 
the amount actually expended for instruction in the high 
school of teuch district, during such school year, over and 
above the amount required by law to be expended for com- 
mon school purposes, but not to exceed in one year five 
hundred dollars to one district. To obtain such aid, the 
high school board, or, in cities not under a county super- 
intendent, the president and secretary of the board of ed- 
ucation, and the treasurer, shall, on or before the first day 
of November, report in duplicate to the state superintendent, 
under their oaths, the amount actually expended for in- 
struction, during the previous school year, specifying the 
several items thereof, with the date and object of each, 
fully. Thereupon, the state superintendent shall fix the 
amount to be paid such high school district, and certify 
the same to the secretary of state, with one of such reports 
annexed; provided, the state superintendent shall be au- 
thorized to withhold the certificate from any free high 
school district for reasons based upon failure to comply 
with the laws relating to free high schools, which reasons 
he shall have transmitted in writing to the free high school 
board thereof, on or before the thirtieth day of the pre- 
ceding June. On such certificate, at any time after the first 
day of December, the certified amounts shall be paid to the 
district treasurer out of the state treasury. The secretary 
of state shall annually include and apportion in the state tax 
all such sums as shall have been so paid, in addition to all 
other sums to be levied for the year. Hereafter, when by 
any neglect or omission, any free high school shall fail to 
have apportioned to it, its share of state aid under this act, 
the state superintendent may, after the time hereinbefore 
fixed for such apportionment by him, fix an amount ten per 
centum less than the amount which such free high school 
would have been entitled to, had it complied with the pro- 



100 The Free High School System. 

visions of this act, and certify the same to the secretary of 
state, with the report of such district or districts annexed 
thereto, and the secretary of state shall thereupon draw 
his warrant for such amount or amounts in favor of such 
district or districts. The whole amount annually paid un- 
der the provisions of this section shall not exceed the sum 
of twenty- five thousand dollars, and if more be demanded by 
such districts, they shall be paid proportionally; provided, 
however, that if the whole amou.it authorized to be paid 
annually in aid of free high schools in towns having no 
graded schools, by chapter 352, of the general laws of 1885, 
is not demanded or expended under the provisions of that 
law, then the unexpended balance of the amount therein 
annually authorized to be paid in aid of free high schools 
in towns having no graded schools, may be added to and 
apportioned among the free high schools provided for in 
sections 490 and 491, of the revised statutes; but no more 
than fifty thousand dollars shall be apportioned to both 
classes of free high schools in any one year as now pro- 
vided by law. 13. 23. 

269. The amendment to section 496, made in 1889, by chapter 466, is 
found in the provision at the end of the section, and its application re- 
sults in making fifty thousand dollars available for the schools, giving 
preference as before to town high schools. 

270. The amendment to this section, made in 1891, commences with 
the twenty -third line and is as follows: 

" Provided, that the state superintendent shall be authorized to with- 
hold the certificate from any free high school district for reasons based 
upon failure to comply with the laws relating to free high schools, which 
reasons shall have been transmitted in writing to the free high school 
board thereof, on or before the 30th day of the preceding June." 

271. The whole design of this amendment is to protect the schools 
whose officers do comply with the law from loss of money on account of 
participation in the aid by schools whose boards do not conform to the law. 
The state superintendent is required by law to approve the qualifications 
of each principal and each assistant in the free high school and to approve 
its course of study. If deficiencies shall be known to exist in any school 
in these or other essentials for the successful work of the school, the state 
superintendent will correspond with the board in relation thereto. If the 
subjects of inquiry are found to be practices that are in neglect or defiance 
of laws relating to these schools, the state superintendent will transmit to 
the free high school board notification of a purpose to withhold the certifi- 
cate from the secretary of state, as provided in the amendment. 

272. Every free high school may share in the aid offered by this section 
if it shall have maintained a school taught by qualified teachers for three 
months of the year for which aid is sought; shall have established and 



Laws and Comments. 101 

maintained a course of study approved by the state superintendent; 
shall have expended during the year for instruction in the high school, 
exclusive of the cost of maintaining a common school, an amount equal 
to twice the sum claimed as aid, and shall report as required by the 
siction. 

273. State superintendent to supervise schools. — Sec- 
tion 496a. (Gh. -125, 1883, as amended by Ch, 2^2, 1885.) 1. 
The state superintendent shall prepare a course or courses 
of study suitable to be pursued in free high schools, pub- 
lish the same, and furnish them upon application for 
the information of localities contemplating the mainte- 
nance of free high schools. He shall exercise such per- 
sonal supervision and make such personal inspection of the 
work of all free high schools organized under the provis- 
ions of the statutes of this state as they seem to require, 
and other duties of his office may warrant; and he may call 
to his assistance in the work of inspection and supervision 
of free high schools, the professor of theory and art in the 
university, and occupy so much of his time as will not in- 
terfere with a proper discharge of his duties in connection 
with the university; he shall examine, or cause to be ex- 
amined, all teachers of high schools required by law to pass 
special examinations to qualify them for teaching in high 
schools, and grant certificates to such as pass examina- 
tions satisfactorily, which certificate shall be in such form 
and for such time as he may prescribe, and shall authorize 
the holders to teach in such special place or places, or in 
the whole state as the qualifications of the candidate may 
warrant. The course of study herein authorized to be pre- 
pared shall include instruction in the theory and art of 
teaching, and organization, management and course of 
study of ungraded schools, and all examinations of teach- 
ers shall include examinations upon these subjects. 7. 8. 
9. 152. 

274-. The state superintendent shall furnish suitable 
blanks for annual and special reports for all free high 
schools, which shall include the number, age and sex of 
all pupils enrolled, the number in each class or year of the 
course of study, the number pursuing English branches 
only, the number completing the course of study each 
year, and such other statistics as may be deemed neces- 
sary. 

Blanks for the annual reports will be mailed by the state superintendent 
to clerks in May, and for the financial reports in August. 



102 The Free High School System. 



SUPERVISION OF FREE HIGH SCHOOLS. 

'27 5. Inspector of free high schools— Section 165tf. (Ch. 
426, 1880.) 1. The state superintendent is hereby author- 
ized to appoint a person of suitable qualifications to assist 
him in visiting, inspecting and supervising the free high 
schools of the state, and to aid in giving information and 
needed assistance to localities in organizing and maintain- 
ing free high schools in towns where no graded schools 
exist. 

27 6. Salary — 2. The person appointed pursuant to the 
provisions of this act shall receive an annual salary of 
eighteen hundred dollars, and reimbursement for all actual 
and necessary expenses incurred, payable monthly upon 
the certificate of the state superintendent, from the annual 
appropriation to encourage the establishment of free 
high schools provided in chapter 352, of the general laws 
of 1885. 

27 7. Other duties — 3. The person hereby authorized to 
be appointed by the state superintendent may be assigned 
such duties in the office of the state superintendent when 
not engaged in the specific duties enumerated in section 1, 
of this act, as the said state superintendent may determine 
and designate. 

278. This provision virtually supersedes the provision of chapter 325, 
laws of 1883, amended by chapter 242, laws of 1885 (273) authorizing the 
professor of theory and art in the university to be called to assist in the 
supervision of free high schools. It is not designed to supplant county or 
city superintendents by state supervision, but to advise and cooperate with 
them in plans for the improvement of the schools under their immediate 
charge. 



VALUE OF DIPLOMA — DUTY OF BOARD. 

27 9. Graduates of high schools entitled to certificates. — 

Section 152a {Ch. 311, 1885). The high school board of 
each town, incorporated village, city or school district, 
which contains within its limits an incorporated village in 
this state, in which there is, or shall hereafter be main- 
tained a free high school, according to the provisions of 
law, shall make out and deliver to each graduate of such 
respective high schools at the time of graduation, a cer- 
tificate of his standing in the various branches which he 
has pursued in such school, and any such graduate who 
shall have duly passed an examination for and received a 
first grade certificate from the county superintendent of 



Laics and Comments 103 

schools of the county where he shall then reside or shall 
have so graduated, upon furnishing to any county superin- 
tendent satisfactory proof of having successfully taught at 
least one school year under such first grade certificate, such 
county superintendent may countersign such certificate of 
graduation or diploma and the same when so countersigned 
shall have the same force and effect, for all purposes, of a 
first grade county certificate for the period of four years, 
from and after the time when the same is so counter- 
signed. 11, 12, 



FORMS. 



280. 

FORM OF RESOLUTION PROPOSED. (243) (1.) 

In order that the question of establishing and maintain- 
ing a high school in the town of may be submitted to 

the electors thereof for determination, the following reso- 
lution is hereby proposed for adoption: 

Resolved by the town board of the town of , That a high 

school be established and maintained in said town. 

The town clerk is directed to give notice that said reso- 
lution will be submitted to a vote at the annual town meet- 
ing (or general election) to be held in said town on the 

day of , 18 — , (or at a special town meeting or election 

to be held on the day of — — , 18 — , which the town 

clerk is hereby required to call upon due notice.) 

Dated this day of , 18 — . 

(Signature of Town Board.) 

If two or more adjoining towns propose to unite, Form No. 1 should 
be voted upon by the town board of each town, and favorable action by 
each is essential as preliminary to the notices contemplated in the fol- 
lowing: 



281. 

FORM OF NOTICE — SUBMITTING PROPOSITION TO VOTE. 

(243) (1.) 

Notice is hereby given to the electors of the town of 

in the county of , that at a special election which is 

hereby called (or at the annual town meeting or general elec- 
tion) to be held in said town on the day of , 18 — , 

the following resolution will be submitted to the vote of 
said electors. 

Resolved, etc. las in the foregoing'] ; and that at said election 
members of the high school board will be chosen, to take 
their offices if said resolution be adopted, the clerk for one 



Forms. 105 

year, the treasurer for two years, and the directors for 
three years ; their respective terms of office beginning with 
the annual town meeting. 

Dated this — day of , 18 — . 

(Signed.) , Town Clerk. 

The above forms may be used with the proper changes, in the case of in- 
corporated villages, or graded school-districts, the call and notice to be 
signed by the village or district clerk . 

In case the call is for special school district meeting, it must be signed by 
at least five legal voters of the district, and the notice given at least six 
days before the time appointed. 

If other matters are to be acted upon at the meeting, as authorizing the 
board to borrow money, to build a schoolhouse, etc., the notices will be 
modified to include such propositions. 



282. 

Form of certificate to be forwarded to the state superintendent to secure 
participation in apportionment to free high schools. 245. 

This may certify that on the day of , 18 — , the 

legal voters of the town of , [or towns of , where 

two or more towns unite, or of school- district, No. — , town 
of , where vote is by a school- district, or city, or vil- 
lage] adopted a resolution to establish and maintain a free 
high school in said town (or towns, or school-district), and 
the persons whose names are hereunto appended have been 
duly elected to the office appended to their names, respect- 
ively. We further certify that no (or one or more) graded 

school exists in said of . The course of study 

adopted by said high school board for said high school is 
herewith submitted for the approval of the state superin- 
tendent, and the names and examination papers of , 

pupils prepared to enter said high school, who are resi- 
dents of said town (or towns, or school district) of , are 

herewith forwarded for inspection. The examination of 

these pupils was held on the day of , 18 — , and 

was conducted by . 

Dated at , — this — day of , 18 — . 

") Director, 

[■ Clerk, 

) Treasurer. 



INDEX. 



Paragraph. 

ADMISSION, REQUIREMENTS FOR 13-23 

ALGEBRA 187-192 

APPARATUS - 98,99,147,148 

ARITHMETIC 20,174-186 

ASSISTANT 6-256 

BOOKKEEPING 180 

BOTANY 96-112 

CIVICS 201-241 

COMPOSITION, ENGLISH 33-39 

CONSTITUTIONS 22,234-239 

COURSES OF STUDY 3-10 

Ancient Classical 4, 6, 9 

English 4, 6, 8 

General Science 4, 6, 8 

Modern Classical 4,6,9 

Three Years 3, 6, 7 

EDUCATIONAL MAXIMS 163-170 

ENGLISH 29-63 

ENGLISH LITERATURE 39-53 

EXAMINATIONS FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF FREE HIGH SCHOOLS 1,14,22 

FORMS 

Resolution proposing establishment 280 

Notice of vote 281 

Certificate to secure apportionment 282 

GEOMETRY 193-200 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 1-28 

GEOGRAPHY 19 

GERMAN 80-89 

GERMAN- AMERICANS, COURSE OF STUDY IN GERMAN FOR 89 

GRAMMAR, ENGLISH.. 18,59-63 

HISTORY 

Ancient 220-224 

English 225 

Defects in preparation 226 

General Methods 204-216 

Reference Books 227-233 

United States 22, 217-219 



Index. 107 

Paragraphs. 

LANGUAGES 29-89 

LATIN 69-79 

LAWS RELATING TO HIGH SCHOOLS 242-279 

Assistants' qualifications 256 

Blanks 274 

County superintendents to countersign diplomas . . 279 

Course of study 255-273 

Diplomas as certificates 27,258-264,279 

Elementary certificate insufficient in some cases 259 

Establishment 213 

Free to resident pupils 255 

Limited state certificates insufficient in four years' course 259 

Officers 251-252 

bond 252 

duties 252 

report 252 

term 251 

to give standings 279 

Organization 251 

Principals' qualifications 255, 258-265 

Stateaid 245-246 

how apportioned 268 

for town high schools 246 

Superintendent authorized to withhold 268 

State Superintendent. 

to appoint supervisor 275 

to examine teachers 273 

to fix amount of aid 268 

to furnish blanks ^ 274 

to make separate class of town high schools 246 

to prepare courses of study 255, 273 

to supervise 273 

Supervision. 

by state superintendent "... 273 

by inspector 275 

Taxes 266, 268 

Theory and Art, etc 273 

Vote to establish 243 



LITERARY READINGS 54-58 



MANUAL OF COMMON SCHOOLS 160-162, 273 

MATHEMATICS 171-200 



ORGANIZATION 1, 2 

OUTBUILDINGS 23-28 

PEDAGOGY 152-170 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 93-95 



108 Index. 

Paragraphs. 

PHYSICS 123-148 

PHYSIOLOGY 21, 113-12 

POLITICAL ECONOMY 240, 241 

PSYCHOLOGY 149-151 

READING 15 

RECORDS 11,12,279 

RHETORIC 64-68 

SCIENCE 90-170 

SPELLING 16 

TEACHERS, EMPLOYMENT OF, AND QUALIFICATIONS 10, 273, 255-265 

THEORY OF TEACHING 152-170, 273 

WRITING 1 



MANUAL 



FREE HIGH SCHOOLS 



WISCONSIN. 



Third Edition. 

(REVISED.) 



L. D. HARVEY, 

State Superintendent, 

1900. 



MANUAL 



OF THE 



FREE HIGH SCHOOLS 



OF WISCONSIN. 



THIRD EDITION 

{REVISED.) 



L. D. HARVEY, State Superintendent. 
I90O. 



MADISON, WIS.: 

DEMOCRAT PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTER, 

iqOO. 



INTRODUCTION. 



This Manual is intended to aid in interpreting the laws relat- 
ing to free high schools; to furnish information regarding their 
establishment, organization, and management and to offer 
suitable suggestions as to the scope and character of the instruc- 
tion in such schools. 

In this, the third edition, the work has been thoroughly re- 
vised and rearranged in accordance with the experience of the 
office and suggestions received from many critics. 

Part I contains general suggestions and the courses of study ; 
Part II, comments on the courses and suggestive methods of 
teaching; Part III, the laws under which the schools are organ- 
ized and maintained. 

References are made to the Manual of the Elementary 
Course of Study for Common Schools, tenth edition, by number 
of the paragraph as : |J14. 



PART I. 



General Suggestions. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 



ORGANIZATION. 

For guidance in organizing and conducting a free high 
school, inquirers are referred to Part III of this Manual which 
contains the laws relating to free high schools. Correspond- 
ence is invited by the State Superintendent. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS. 



High school teachers should not neglect or fail to obtain the 
necessary and proper legal qualifications. Without such, quali- 
fication, no valid contract can he made with the high school 
hoard, nor is the teacher entitled to pay from the public funds. 
Under no circumstances should the work of teaching 1 be entered 
upon before the proper legal qualification has been obtained. 

Any high school hoard employing a teacher without legal 
qualification, hy such action renders the high school district 
liable to loss of state aid. 

Any one of the following named documents is considered a 
sufficient legal and educational qualification for the position 
of principal or assistant in any high school : 

1. The Wisconsin unlimited or life state certificate. 

2. A diploma granted upon the completion of a regular 
collegiate course in the University of Wisconsin, or upon the 
completion of the full course of any Wisconsin state normal 
school, if countersigned by the state superintendent of Wis- 
consin. 

3. A special license issued by the state superintendent, for 
one year, to the holder of either of the above diplomas. 

4. A diploma from an incorporated college or university 
whose regular collegiate courses of study are fully and fairly 
equivalent to corresponding courses in the University of Wiscon- 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 5 

sin, or a diploma granted by a state normal school, whose course 
of stud}£ is fully and fairly equivalent to the advanced courses 
of study in the Wisconsin state normal schools, when counter- 
signed by the state superintendent of Wisconsin, upon the 
recommendation of the Wisconsin stato board of examiners. 

5. A special license issued by the state superintendent of 
Wisconsin for two years to holders of the above described di- 
plomas upon the recommendation of the state board of exam- 
iners. 

6. A teacher's unlimited state certificate from another state, 
which has been countersigned by the state superintendent of 
Wisconsin upon the recommendation of the Wisconsin state 
board of examiners. 

7. A diploma granted upon the completion of the course of 
study of the Milwaukee high school and the normal department 
thereof, if countersigned by the state superintendent of Wis- 
consin. 



limited state certificates and assistants' 
•certificates. 

A limited state certificate, gained by examination given by 
the Wisconsin state board of examiners, qualifies the holder dur- 
ing the life of the certificate for the principalship of a free 
high school having only a three years course of study. 

A certificate granted upon the completion of the elementary 
course prescribed for Wisconsin state normal schools, if counter- 
signed by the state superintendent, legally qualifies its holder 
for the principalship of a free high school having only a three 
years course of study, but not for the principalship of a high 
school having a four years course of study. A special license 
issued by the state superintendent for one year, to the holder 
of a Wisconsin normal school elementary certificate gives like 
legal qualification to its holder. 

Any person desiring to occupy the position of assistant in a 
free high school, who does not hold (a) some one of the above 
named documents, or (b) a county superintendent certificate, 
as provided by chapter 333, laws of 1895, and laws amenda- 
tory thereto, should first obtain a certificate from, the superin- 
tendent of the city or county in which he intends to teach, 



(; WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

which certificate should be of the first grade and issued on a 
written examination. If his position as assistant, requires him 
to teach branches not named in the certificate thus held or ob- 
tained, he will be required to pass a satisfactory examination 
in such branches under the direction of the state superintendent. 
To enable assistants properly to qualify for their positiojis, the 
subjects they are to teach should be determined and made known 
to them by the high school hoard as early as possible. High 
school assistants whose certificates expire June 30th of the cur- 
rent year, should secure certificates for the next year before 
muling a new contract. 

All documents described above are subject to the inspection 
and approval of the state superintendent, under section 494 of 
the revised statutes. For this reason every diploma or certifi- 
cate relied upon us a legal qualification- must be forwarded to 
the state superintendent for approval before its holder can com- 
plete a legal contract with any high school board. This require- 
ment does not necessarily' apply to Wisconsin state certificates, 
to properly countersigned diplomas, or to properly countersigned 
state certificates from other states. 

Elementary certificates from normal sckools of other states, 
limited state certificates from other states, or diplomas granted 
upon the completion of any special course of any kind in any. 
institution can not be given legal recognition. 



MANAGEMENT. 

It is presumed that the high school board will formally vote 
to clothe the principal of the free high school with authority 
to classify, grade, and direct the instruction of the high school 
pupils; and will in all high schools excepting those of town, 
and of city organization under a city superintendent, likewise 
authorize the principal to supervise, classify, and direct the 
work in the grades below the high school. If no such author- 
ity shall be delegated for control, of the grades, some one mem- 
ber of the board should be formally named by the board to act 
with the principal in this matter, but in no case should the 
board withhold from the principal the power of organizing and 
classifying the high school, and of promoting to his school by 
an examination, the pupils of the next grade below the high 
school at such seasons as shall be named by the board. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 7 

The board should maintain such relations with the teachers 
of the high school as shall afford thorough cooperation in all 
the important activities of the school; should at due seasons 
institute appropriate financiering, so that funds shall, be pro- 
vided for liquidating the expenses made necessary by contract- 
ing with a sufficient number of competent teachers ; should ai'- 
range for the purchase of text, reference and record books, and 
stationery; and should provide needed furniture, and apparatus 
for illustrative teaching. 

The dates of opening and closing school terms for the year 
commencing July 1, should be planned early enough to afford 
the items as information for transmission in a special report 
blank that is mailed to high school clerks, yearly in July by the 
state superintendent. 

The principal is responsible to the local board and to the 
state superintendent for such service in directing the study of 
pupils, as in the instruction afforded by himself and assistants, 
shall conserve orderly habits of individuals and of classes, thus 
assuring wholesome intellectual procedure of the entire school- 
He is responsible for the habits of patient study, character of 
recitation, and intellectual progress of each student. He should 
see to it that all school records, including final standings, shall 
be posted to date; should maintain a tidy school house and re- 
spectable closets, and such detail in regimen as shall promote 
excellent scholarship and citizenship. 

The board should hold the principal strictly responsible for 
administering the work in exact accordance in time and sequence 
with the assignments made in the courses of study that have 
since August, 1899, been formally adopted by the board and 
approved by the state superintendent, certified copies of which 
have been mailed to each school and filed in the office of the 
state superintendent. It is imperative that the approved courses 
shall not be changed in any particular without the written ap- 
proval of the state superintendent. It is expected that all pro- 
visions of approved courses will be in operation by September, 
1900. 

Parents' counsel should be invited at the opening of the fall 
term, in determining the course of study for each pupil; pu- 
pils should be steadily held to such chosen work, extraordinary 
cases excepted. Appropriate recitation programs should be 
framed throughout the year, that will admit of recitations of 
each pupil, in conformity to the needs of his course. 



S WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

Examinations should be so organized for the first year class 
as to teach the art of preparation of examination papers in 
proper form. Thereafter examinations should be held at such 
rimes and should be of such scope and character in each branch, 
as to furnish appropriate records for guidance of the board in 
awarding certificates of graduation. 

The principal should maintain the standard for admission 
to the high school thaj is fixed for graduation from common 
schools, and should by appropriate instruction specially extend 
the knowledge of any pupil who reveals deficiencies in ele- 
mentary scholarship. The program of daily work should, so 
far as practicable, present an alternation of periods of recitation 
and study. 

A program of study, as well as of recitation, displayed upon 
the bulletin board at the opening of school terms, will aid pu- 
pils in establishing proper habits. The recitation program 
should have a permanent place in the study room for the guid- 
ance of teachers, pupils, and visitors. It is recommended that 
all persons occupying the high school room, be required to pre- 
serve 1 such order at all times as will enable students who care 
to study, to do so under favorable circumstances. This regi- 
men will not only secure "order," but it. will present favorable 
opportunity for such added study as will set pupils free on any 
evening that parents may select. 

Good text-books should be selected and adopted by the board. 
Appropriate direction for their preservation and use should be 
given in connection with instruction in method of study. 

The teacher in the high school should always bear in mind 
that in the recitation it should be his aim to secure on the 
part of each student the largest amount of well directed men- 
tal activity and the best possible expression of the results of 
that activity. Something definite should be assigned for prep- 
aration for each day's recitation and definite demands should 
be made upon the pupil in the way of recitation. 

The pupil, and not the teacher, should make the recitation. 
There are times when it is proper for the teacher to add to the 
pupil's knowledge of the subject, but he should not do this to 
the extent of leading the pupil to rely upon the teacher rather 
than upon himself. 

The pupils should have something to say in each recitation, 
and they should have an opportunity to say it without inter- 
ruption by the teacher. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, i900. 9 

The teacher may question to test the pupils 1 knowledge, power, 
or skill, or he may question to stimulate and direct thought ; 
neither will he done wisely without clearness of thought and 
definiteness of plan on the teacher's part. Asking too many 
questions is a greater error than asking too few. 

Many teachers fall into the habit of repeating the pupil's 
answer when correct in matter and form. This should he 
avoided. 



COURSES OF STUDY. 

The state superintendent is authorized by law to personally 
supervise the free high schools, and to appoint a person to aid 
in such duty. Section 496a of Wisconsin Statutes reads: 
"The state superintendent shall prepare a course of study suit- 
able to he pursued in. free high schools. * * * The course 
of study herein authorized to lx^ prepared shall include instruc- 
tion in the theory and art, of teaching, and the organization, 
management and course of study of ungraded schools, and all 
examinations shall cover these subjects." 

In compliance with this statute, courses have been published 
and are commended to the consideration of boards, as recited 
in form hereinafter. 

All courses adopted by boards must be approved by the state 
superintendent in order that, the school may share in the ap- 
portionment of the state aid. Any changes in these courses 
after adoption and approval, without the consent of the state 
superintendent, will jeopardize the state aid, and no changes in 
the courses can he approved for operation during a school year. 
All negotiations for change should be perfected so as to inaugu- 
rate actual changes in the course on the opening of the fall 
term. 

Every school board must adopt and offer an English course 
of study which shall bear no foreign language; therefore, when 
only one course is administered, it must be the English course. 

For the four years English course there must he two teach- 
ers, — the principal and one assistant at least. 

For the English and Modern Classical cxmrses, a principal 
and two assistants are required. If the Modern Classical course 
be adopted, the General Science, and the Latin course may be 
included without any additional teaching force. 



10 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



If the Modern Classical course is not adopted anfr the Gen- 
eral Science, or the Latin course, or both, be adopted, a prin- 
cipal and two assistants are required. 

If the Ancient Classical course be adopted in addition to 
the English and any one other course, a principal and three 
assistants will be required. 

It is to be understood that the above are the minimum re- 
quirements for teachers in free high schools. Many schools 
will, according to enrollment, require more teachers than are 
named herein. 

Each high school having a course of three years must have 
at least one teacher who shall devote all his time to the high 
school. 



RECORDS. 



Boards should provide for the high school two record books 
sufficiently large to serve for several years. In a form like the 
following, should be kept the term or semi-term standings: 



Arithmetic. 


Grammar. 


History. 


Etc. 


A. B. 


75 
88 


83 


78 


98 
83 


79 


86 


88 
83 


84 


83 




C. D. 

























































































The other should record the final standings only, and may be 
ruled as follows : 



Name. 



J. S. 



Arith- 
metic. 


Grammar. 


History. 


83 


88 


79 



Etc. 



The book records should be kept posted to date so as to af- 
ford reliable references at any time, for promotions, reports, 
and for granting certificates of graduation. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



11 



ENGLISH 
FOUR YEARS COURSE. 

FIRST YEAR. 



First Term. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 
Composition. 
Literary Readings. 



Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 
Composition. 
Literary Readings. 



Algebra. 
Botany. 
Composition. 
Literary Readings. 



The work in composition shall cover the essentials of English including such study 
of grammar as is necessary. 



SECOND YEAR. 



First Term. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



Expressive Reading. Bookkeeping or Arithmetic. Constitutions. 

Botany. Physiology. Physiology. 

History of United States. History of United States. Constitutional History of 

Unitod States. 
Literary Readings. Literary Readings. Literary Readings. 

THIRD YEAR. 



First Term. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



Geometry. 
History. 

Political Economy. 
Literary Readings. 



Geometry. 

History. 

Advanced Composition. 

Literary Readings. 



Geometry. 

History. 

Advanced Composition. 

Literary Readings. 



FOURTH YEAR. 



First Term. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



Psychology. 
PhysicB. 
Literature. 
Literary Readings. 



Theory and Art of Teaching. Review Arithmetic and 

Grammar. 
Physics. Physics. 



Literature. 
Literary Readings. 



Literature. 
Literary Readings. 



The services of two teachers are essential for administering 
this course of study. , v ^ 



V2 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



MODERN CLASSICAL 



FOUR YEARS COURSE. 

FIRST YEAR. 



First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 




Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 

Literary Readings. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 

Literary Readings. 


Latin. 
Algobra. 
Composition. 
Literary Readings. 






SECOND YEAR. 






First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 




Latin. 
Geometry. 


Latin. 

Geometry. 


Latin. 

Geometry. 





History of United States. History of United States. Constitutional History of 

United States. 
Literary Readings. Literary Readings. Constitutions. 



THIRD YEAR. 


First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


German. 


German. 


German. 


History. 


History. 


History. 


Literary Readings. 


. Literary Readings. 


Review Arithmetic and 
Grammar. 


FOURTH YEAR. 


First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


German. 


German. 


German. 


Physics. 


Physics. 


Physics. 


Literary Readings. 


Theory and Art of Teaching. 


Literary Readings. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



13 



GENERAL SCIENCE 
FOUR YEARS COURSE. 

FIRST YEAR. 



First Term. 



Second Teem. 



Third Term. 



Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 
Composition. 
Literary Readings. 



Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 
Composition. 
Literary Readings. 



Algebra. 
Botany. 
Composition. 
Literary Readings 



The work in composition shall cover the essentials of English including such study of 
grammar as is necessary. 



SECOND YEAR. 



First Teum. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



Expressive Reading. Bookkeeping or Arithmetic. Constitutions. 

Botany. Physiokg/. Physiology. 



History of United States. 


History of United States. 


Constitutional History of 
United States. 


Literary Readings. 




THIRD YEAR. 




First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 



German. 

Geometry. 

History. 

Literary Readings. 



Gorman. 

Geometry. 

History. 

Literary Readings. 



German. 

Geometry. 

History. 

Review Arithmetic and 
Grammar. 



FOURTH YEAR. 



First Term. 



German. 

Literature. 

Physics. 

Literary Readings. 



Second Term. 



Third Term. 



German. 

Literature. 

Physics. 



German. 

Literature. 

Physics. 



Theory and Art of Teaching. Literary Readings. 



14 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



LATIN 
FOUR YEARS COURSE. 

FIRST YEAR. 



First Teem. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin . 


Algebra. 


Algebra. 


Algebra. 


Physical Geography. 


Physical Geography. 


Composition. 


Literary Readings. 


Literary Readings. 


Literary Readings. 




SECOND YEAR. 




First Term. 


Second Term. 


Thibd Term. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Expressive Reading. 


Bookkeeping or Arithmetic. 


Constitutions. 


History of United States. 
Literary Readings. 


History of United States. 
Literary Readings. 


Constitutional History of 

United States. 
Literary Readings. 


THIRD YEAR. 


First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Geometry. 


Geometry . 


Geometry. 


History. 


History. 


History. 


Literary Readings. 


Literary Readings. 


Review Arithmetic and 
Grammar. 


FOURTH YEAR. 


First Term. 


Second Term. 


Third Term. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Literature. 


Literature . 


Literature 


Physics. 


Physics. 


Physics. 


Literary Readings. 


Theory and Art of Teaching 


. Literary Readings. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



15 



ANCIENT CLASSICAL 
FOUR YEARS COURSE. 

FIRST YEAR. 



Fiest Teem. 


Second Teem. 


Thied Teem. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Algebra . 


Algebra . 


Algebra . 


Physical Geography. 


Physical Geography. 


Composition. 


Literary Readings. 


Literary Readings. 


Literary Readings. 




SECOND YEAR. 




Fiest Teem. 


Second Teem. 


Thied Teem. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Geometry . 


Geometry . 


Geometry. 


History of United States. 
Literary Readings. 


History of United States. 
Literary Readings. 


Constitutional History of 

United States. 
Constitutions . 




THIRD YEAR. 




Fiest Teem. 


• Second Teem. 


Thied Teem. 


Latin. 


Latin . 


Latin. 


Greek. 


Greek. 


Greek . 


History. 


History. 


History. 


Literary Readings. 


Literary Readings. 


Review Arithmetic and 
Grammar. 



FOURTH YEAR. 



Fiest Teem. 


Second Teem. 


Thied Teem. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


Greek. 


Greek . 


Greek . 


Physics. 


Physics. 


Physios. 


Literary Readings. 


Theory and Art of Teaching. 


Literary Readings. 



16 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



ENGLISH 
THREE YEARS COURSE. 

FIRST YEAR. 



Fiest Teem. 



Second Teem. 



Thied Teem. 



English Grammar. 

Physical Geography. 

Algebra. 

Literary "Readings. 



Composition . 

Physical Geography. 

Algebra. 

Literary Readings. 



Composition. 

Botany or Elements of 

Agriculture. 
Algebra . 

Literary Readings. 



SECOND YEAR. 



Fibst Teem. 



Second Teem. 



Thied Teem. 



History of United States. History of United States. History of United St:>tes. 

Physio] 

Cc ~3. 

Literary Readings. Literary Readings. Literary Readings. 



Botany or Elements of Physiology. 

Agriculture. 
Expressive Reading. Constitutions. 



• it. 
THIRD YEAR. 



Fiest Teem. 



Second Teem. 



Thied Teem. 



Arithmetic or Bookkeeping. History. 

Physics. Physics. 

Plane Geometry. Plane Geometry. 

Literary Readirgs. Literary Readings. 



History. 

Physics. 

Tl eory arj d Art of Teaching. 

Literary Readings. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 17 



STANDARD OF ADMISSION". 

The standard established in the examination for the organi- 
zation of the free high school, must not be; lowered after the 
establishment of the school. The minimum of admission to all 
the free high schools, is the standard prescribed for completion 
of The Course of Study for Common Schools. If pupils whose 
scholarship is below such common school standard are taught 
by any high school teacher, an appropriate deduction must bo 
made from the total amount which the board reports expended 
for high school instruction. This may mean reduced apportion- 
ment of state aid. 

The following is the summary of the course laid down in 
The Manual of the Elementary Course of Study for Common 
Schools and will assist in determining the requisites for admis- 
sion to the high schools. Close study of the Manual will re- 
veal the force and meaning of this summary. References to that 
publication are inserted to facilitate comparison. 

... _ beading Tj 49.._ 

The pupil snouiu nave acquired: 
Ability to read intelligently and expressively any selection in the 

Fourth Reader. 
Ability k, ^i»e a clem oU.^ 'in, of the meaning of the words 

used. 
The ability to modulate the voice in stress, volume, pitch, rate, 

inflection, and quality. 
Ability to recite with good expression choice selections of prose 

and poetry of an amount equal to six pages of the reader. 
Ability to use the dictionary intelligently. 



SPELLING, |j 228. 

The pupil should spell correctly through force of habit what- 
ever he writes. He should have the habit of consulting the 
dictionary in all doubtful spelling. He may be fairly tested 
by his spelling in examination papers, by a promiscuous list 
of fifty or more words, and by applying the principal rules of 
spelling. 

2 



18 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



WRITING, ]\ 229. 

The pupil should have the ability to write legibly and neatly, 
and to prepare papers in good form. 



GRAMMAR, fl 83. 

The pupil should be able: 

To give clear and grammatical oral and written expression to 
his Thoughts, and to use capitals and punctuation marks cor- 
reel ly. 

To use a vocabulary that is sufficient for the precise expression 
of his thoughts. 

To use nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs correctly in the 
construction of sentences, as suggested in the outline of work. 

To separate easy composition into component sentences; sen- 
tences into principal and modifying elements, and to apply 
rules of construction. 

GEOGRAPHY, ]\ 21 <i. 

The pupil should be able: 

To read maps readily. 

To sketch in outline each of the continents, to state approxi- 
mately their relative sizes, using Wisconsin and the United 
States as units of measure. 

To locate the system of water-partings and drainage slopes of 
each continent. 

To locate and tell something about some land and water forms, — 
some city, or other point of interest included in the course 
of tracing lessons. 

To describe important areas of production, especially those of 
his own country. 

To draw a map of Wisconsin from memory, with a fair degree 
of accuracy. 

To comprehend clearly the system of reckoning standard time; 
also the method of surveying public lands, with practical ap- 
plications. 

To show by means of drawings the course of constant and 
periodic winds and of ocean currents, and to explain the 
causes and effects of the currents. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 19 



ARITHMETIC, ft 172. 

The pupil should show : 

1. Ability to analyze problems involving applications of per- 
centage indicated in the course of study, problems in propor- 
tion, and in mensuration of surfaces and solids when geo- 
metrical formulas arc not employed. This analysis should 
show a logical train of thought properly expressed. 

2. Ability to indicate by arithmetical symbols the operations 
necessary to the solution of problems in the classes mentioned 
above. 

3. Ability to extract square and cube roots by some one method 
and to give an explanation of the process used. 

4. Ability to state original practical problems of the various 
classes indicated in 1, and to solve them. 

5. Skill in writing the various kinds of business forms in com- 
mon use, and in performing by short methods the computa- 
tions required in ordinary business transactions. 

6. Ability to define arithmetical terms used, and to state rules 
for performing operations. 

7. Accuracy and rapidity in performing the work required 
above, are essential requisites for completion of the work of 
this Form. 

PHYSIOLOGY, ^| 265. 

The pupil should be able to give the general structure of tho 
alimentary, respiratory, and nervous organs of the body, — their 
chief functions, and the well established laws of health, with 
intelligent reasons for considering them. 



CONSTITUTION, |j 281. 

It is expected that both history and constitutions will have 
been studied before the pupil enters the high school. It is 
unnecessary to make a summary of the preliminary work that 
should be done in those branches, but reference is made to The 
Manual for Common Schools, under the head of "Constitutions." 



PART II. 



Subjects and Methods. 



oo WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ON SCIENCE TEACHING. 



Science in the high school is designed primarily for the pur- 
pose of getting simple informaton from text books and by observ- 
ing phenomena ; later the purpose is toward classification, so as 
to lead pupils toward possible inductions, and to confidence in 
themselves that shall in turn profoundly stimulate their activi- 
ties. The discipline gained by having (a) a definite aim, (b) a 
definite method to accomplish this aim, (c) the power of careful 
and accurate observation, ( d) the ability to reach correct conclu- 
sions, is important. The extremes of these purposes are found : 
(1) In the instruction which attempts to teach mere text-book, 
without the assistance of a suitable laboratory or sufficient ap- 
paratus. This is manifestly a most serious mistake, and no 
instructor should attempt the teaching of a scientific subject 
unless the school has a proper room or place to carry on ex- 
perimental work and can provide itself with a suitable amount 
of apparatus to make the subject practical. (2) In those 
schools in which the pure laboratory method is followed. Here 
the text-book is abandoned and pupils are set at work to re- 
discover all the laws and reaffirm too many of the principles 
that have concerned the scientists of past ages. It is unfortu- 
nate that in many high schools the teaching force is inadequate 
to give careful supervision to laboratory work, for without effi- 
cient supervision such work is likely to be worse than useless. 
Whatever laboratory work is done should be under the close 
supervision of a competent instructor. The high school labo- 
ratory is no place tor a pupil teacher. 

The instructor in science should undertake to strike the 
golden mean between these extremes. The text-book is a valu- 
able adjunct to the study of science and its utility should be 
fully appreciated. Each subject under consideration should 
first be thoroughly studied injdie text to gain all the possiblo 
knowledge concerning the details which have been worked out 
by others ; with this knowledge as a basis the teacher should 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 23 

direct experiments which are intended to confirm the statements 
of the text, — returning to the text after the experimental work 
has been performed, with a view of clinching the principles 
under consideration. 

Economy in experiment is a feature of science teaching which 
the instructor must study with care. Schools may waste time 
in permitting the pupils to spend days in proving phenomena 
that are already familiar, — as that heat expands and cold con- 1 
tracts. One or two experiments, supplemented by the common- 
sense which most American children possess, is sufficient 
to demonstrate the truth of the law. Every science teacher 
should plan the entire work for the period of its continuance, 
before he begins his teaching, blocking out the amount of time 
which he can allow to each phase of the study. As he pro- 
ceeds, he should keep strictly within the limits established. The 
simple principles should he passed over somewhat rapidly, al- 
lowing more time for the demonstration of the more difficult 
problems. 

So far as possible the pupils themselves should do the actual 
experimental work. They should handle the material. The, 
instructor will find, however, thai some independent supple- 
mentary experiments and illustrations will be profitable. 

Too much importance cannot be attached to drawings in con- 
nection with all laboratory work. It is not necessary that the 
pupil he an artist in order to outline in the note book a repre- 
sentation of the apparatus or material used. The instructor 
should see that each drawing, though not artistic, is accurate 
in outline and details. 

Physics and botany furnish the best opportunities for thor- 
ough science teaching. They are practical subjects, having an 
intimate relation to our every-day life. Providing a suitable 
laboratory and sufficient apparatus as aids, is no great burden 
for school districts. Physiology and physical geography are 
likewise practical subjects. No special laboratory is required, 
however; the apparatus used in physics and botany can be cm- 
ployed in these branches. 

Psychology is worthy of students' attention, and pedagogy, 
though chiefly beneficial to the prospective teacher, gives in- 
formation which every intelligent citizen should possess. 



24 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



7 SUGGESTIONS. 

The field of original investigation is beyond the high school 
student ; it belongs to the college post-graduate. 

Experiments for display and entertainment are appropriate 
for evening shows, but are not productive of the best results for 
the student of science. 

Laboratories should be provided with suitable tables and 
blackboards. They should be well lighted and provided with 
means for darkening the windows. 

The pupils can, under the direction of the teacher, make much 
simple but useful apparatus outside of school hours. The cau- 
tion here is, however, to employ the pupils as students of science, 
not as carpenters and blacksmiths. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 

The work in physiology should cover, in a general way, the 
work outlined in any good text-book, as Overton's Physiology, 
or Martin's Human Body. The study should be made as ob- 
jective as possible, special emphasis being given to diagraming 
organs and systems at the time they are studied, and suggested 
experiments made when possible. Too much attention should 
not be given to details, but the fundamentals should be thor- 
oughly taught. 

The work should give to the student a clear idea of the liv- 
ing body, the divisions of bodies into organic and inorganic, 
into plants and animals, of what is meant by the structure 
of a body, anatomy, physiology, hygiene, cell tissue, membrane, 
gland, muscle, tendon, blood vessel, nerve, lymphatic, bone, and 
joint. There should also be a clear notion of the kinds of work 
done in the human body and of the systems by which it is ac- 
complished. 

The knowledge of the digestive system should include a knowl- 
edge of what constitutes food, and the classes of food which 
are taken into the system, together with a knowledge of the 
system as a whole, the function and structure of its organs, in- 
cluding the mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, 
esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine, and large 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 25 

intestine. There should also he a clear understanding of and 
ability to diagram the two routes by which the digested food 
goes into circulation (by blood vessels and lymphatics,), as well 
as the ability to trace the steps in the digestion of the differ- 
ent classes of food, and to state the laws of hygiene for the 
system. 

In connection with the circulatory system, students should 
he able to give (he plan of the system as a whole, the function 
and structure of the organs of circulation, including the heart, 
arteries, capillaries, and veins; to show the structure, compo- 
sition, and function of the blood, and to explain by diagram 
the pulmonic and the systemic circulation, to show the changes 
which the blood undergoes in the lungs and capillaries, how 
animal heat is produced and how regulated, and what is meant 
by congestion, inflammation, a cold, and a fever. 

A knowledge of the respiratory system should include a knowl- 
edge of the; purposes of respiration, the structure and function 
of the organs of the systenu the movements in respiration, the 
chemical changes which result from it, the consequent impor- 
tance of ventilation, and JNTature's provisions for keeping the air 
pure. The dissection of the heart and lungs of a sheep or 
other mammal, and a diagram of the circulatory and respira- 
tory systems combined, would be of value to the student at this 
point. 

The study of the secretory system should result in knowledge 
of the secretory organs and the functions of their secretions. 
The organs thus studied should include the mucus and serous 
membranes, synovial membrane, salivary glands, lining mem- 
branes of the stomach and intestines, liver, pancreas, oil glands, 
lachrymal glands, and the lining of the ear. 

The knowledge of the absorbent system should include tho 
method by which the waste matter is taken from the tissues 
and expelled from tho body as perspiration, and by tho lungs, 
and kidneys. In this connection, there should be a study of 
the skin, its structure, appendages, and functions. 

As the result of the work on the osseous system students should 
be able to give the composition, structure, classes, and uses of 
bones ; the parts of the skeleton in the head, trunk, upper and 
lower extremities; means by which parts of the skeleton are 
united, kinds of joints, and the hygiene of bones, especially with 
relation to children. 

For the muscular system there should be a knowledge of the 



i'(; WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

structure, function, general arrangement, position, and attach- 
ment of muscles, together with rules of hygiene, in connection 
with exercise and rest. 

As a result of the study of the nervous system, the student 
should be able to show the necessity of a nervous system, to 
diagram in a general way the cerebrospinal and the sympa- 
thetic systems, to describe the two kinds of nerve tissue, with 
the function of each, to illustrate and explain what is meant 
by an impression, sensation, and reflex nervous action; to dia- 
gram and state the function of the parts of the brain and spinal 
cord, to describe by diagram the crossing of the nerve fibers 
in the cord and the medulla oblongata, and to show the effect 
of injury to either side of the brain or spinal cord, and to 
trace the course of the nerve current in reflex action; to show 
the knowledge gained through each sense acting alone, and to 
diagram the nerves of the ear and eye, describing by means 
of the diagrams acts of hearing and of seeing, and to show rea- 
sons for defective hearing and vision. 

There should be a clear notion of the action of alcohol and 
other stimulants and narcotics upon the human body. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

This is a branch of study that involves the elements of all 
the sciences. It is therefore necessary for the instructor before 
he begins the subject to ascertain what knowledge the pupils 
have of botany, physics, geology, astronomy, chemistry, etc. If 
they have had training in nature work and elementary science 
in the grades, the study of physical geography may not be found 
difficult. 

In some instances it will be found necessary for the instructor 
to revert to some of the elementary principles of the sciences 
involved. 

The aim of the teacher in physical geography should be to 
Rave the pupil acquire a knowledge of the relation of earth 
to man, which must necessarily involve a thorough study of the 
immediate environment of man. 

After establishing a definite aim for each recitation, the 
teacher should carefully ascertain what things the pupil must 
know in order to realize this aim ; what of these things are 



WISCONSIN r'REE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 27 

now known, and proceed accordingly with the instruction, 
teaching what remains to be known. 

As text-books differ in the subject-matter treated, it is recom- 
mended that the study of physical geography shall include the 
following general considerations, consuming the time allotted to 
the subject in the high school. 

1. The earth as a planet and its relation to the solar system. 

2. A brief geological history of the earth with special reference 
to. Wisconsin and the United States. 

3. The land distribution and the relief of its various divi- 
sions, — volcanoes and earthquakes. 

4. The water distribution, continental drainage, erosion, wave*, 
tides, ocean currents, glaciers, and geysers. 

5. The atmospheric movements and their causes, with a careful 
study of climate and its causes. 

(If time permits, the following subjects may be pursued:) 

6. The human race as distributed. 

7. The animals and plants as distributed. 

8. The economic products, including variety of soil, distribu- 
tion and use of coal, ores, building stone, and natural gas. 
The practical side of the subject should not be neglected. 

The rivers, creeks, lakes, hills, valleys, railroad-cuts, storms, the 
sky, day and night, — all furnish an opportunity for -personal 
observation. The laboratory will probably furnish apparatus 
for demonstration, such as : 

A thermometer. 

A barometer ( its construction should be taught). 

A centrifugal hoop. 

A cylinder and bucket for determination of specific gravity. 

An electrical machine. 

Bar magnets. 

^Magnetic needles. 

Ball and ring to show expansion and contraction. 

Air pump. 

A prism or spectroscope. 

Helief maps, a good globe or tellurian, and a spherical black- 
board are needed in this studv. 



2S WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



PIIYSK JS. 

The first element of success in teaching physics is to interest 
the members of the class in the subject. It is a comparatively 
easy matter to accomplish this end, owing to the fact that this 
branch deals with matters of every-day observation, such as 
light, heat, sound, motion, electricity, etc. Owing to this fact, 
illustrations in every department of physics may be drawn from 
daily experiences. Moreover, many of the principles of phys- 
ics can Be readily demonstrated so that students may see the 
beauties which exist in the phenomena of nature. When their 
interest is thoroughly aroused, even the obscure parts of the 
subject acquire a new meaning through their connection with 
the parts which are more easily understood. 

A demonstration of a principle in physics fixes it in the 
student's mind so that in recalling an experiment which he has 
seen he will not fail to grasp the principle which that experi- 
ment illustrates. Xo other science lends itself to exhibition 
more easily than physics, and there are few of its principles 
which cannot be illustrated before a class. In all cases it 
should be pointed out that the law of nature operates when- 
ever the operator supplies the necessary conditions, and it is 
the object of the experiment, and, indeed the object of the study 
of physics to observe and to study the laws of the universe. 

The teacher should remember that the pupil is not likely 
to grasp a subject at first presentation, and that it must be ap- 
proached from many sides and with many illustrations. Even 
then a student does not fully comprehend the subject till he 
himself has dealt with it, and therefore it is desirable that 
students not only repeat the experiments shown by the in- 
structor, but that others be devised, tending to make clearer 
the principle. This should bo done by the class in small sec- 
tions, if the class be large, and not during the hour of recita- 
tion. Whatever subjects are studied, the experiments which 
the students themselves perform should not be undertaken in 
the laboratory until after the corresponding subjects have been 
studied in some good text-book and thoroughly discussed and 
illustrated in class. In other words, the laboratory practice in 
any department of physics should follow and not precede the 
work of the text. Moreover, there should not be assigned to 
the student in the laboratory any experiment which does not 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 29 

illustrate some important scientific principle. The students 
should record all results, and conclusions in a neatly kept note- 
hook, which the teacher should read and correct. 

The following plan of note-book may he suggestive: 

I. Aim. — What is the object of the experiment; what do you 
expect to prove or determine '{ 

II. Method. — Give briefly the details of the apparatus and 
the preparation made to perform the experiment. 

III. Observation. — As a result of your experiment, note care- 
fully what you see. 

IV. Conclusion.— As a result of your observations, what con- 
clusions do you reach? 

A certain amount of equipment and apparatus is required for 
the experimental part of the instruction. While much of this 
must he purchased outright, much more may he extemporized 
by the ingenuity of the instructor and the students. In choos- 
ing the apparatus for a school whose appropriations must remain 
small, such pieces should he selected as are capable of being 
used for a variety of purposes. The following list, which can 
be purchased for about one hundred dollars, is suggested as one 
with which every high school should he first equipped. If a 
less sum than one hundred dollars is available, purchases should 
be made in the order given.. 

i;2 doz . glass beakers — 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 18 oz $1 00 

1 doz . assorted test tubes 30 

10 ft. i 4 in. rubber tubing 80 

% doz. ordinary drinking glasses 25 

4 tin cups 20 

\'i doz. old bottles of different sizes 00 

1 lb. glass tubing 50 

Assorted corks at local druggist's 25 

1 doz. assorted rubber corks, with aDd without holes 50 

1 alcohol lamp 50 

5 lbs. mercury 3 50 

1 chemical thermometer, Farenheit and centigrade scales. . 2 00 

1 common thermometer 20 $10 00 

1 iron retort stand, three rings 50 

1 wood test-tube holder 30 

1 10-in. beam balance 5 25 

1 set metric weights, 100 grams to 1 centigram 2 50 

i meter sticks at 25c 1 00 19 55 

1 ball and ring for expansion 75 



30 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

1 air pump and receiver $20 00 $40 30 

2 bar magnets at 50c 1 00 

1 magnet needle on stand 75 

1 flint glass prism, flat ends 1 00 

2 double convex lenses at 75 2 1 50 

3 tuning forks on resonant boxes 6 00 

1 plunge battery (4 cells) 10 00 60 55 

1 astatic needle galvanometer 4 00 

1 electric motor 1 00 

1 small incandescent lamp 50 

1 set of glass capillary tubes 75 

1 lb. No. 18 single cotton covered copper wire 25 

1 induction coil, \^ in. spark 5 00 72 05 

1 telegraph key and sounder 3 00 

1 Gage's " seven in one " apparatus 7 00 

1 Grova's disk for illustrating wave motion 50 

1 resistance box, adjustable 4 00 86 55 

1 electrical machine 15 00 

1 iron whirling table 4 00 

1 Leyden jar 1 00 106 55 

Additional apparatus should be purchased in the following 
order : 

1 set single and double pulleys (at local hardware dealers). . $1 00 

1 cylinder and bucket for specific gravity work 2 00 

1 electro magnet 1 25 

1 hand dynamo 30 00 $34 25 

1 set collision balls 5 00 

1 Leyden jar, movable coating 2 00 

1 set apparatus for centrifugal force 3 00 

1 Tyndall's apparatus for specific heat 2 00 

1 blackboard for composition of forces 10 00 56 25 

1 sonometer 8 00 

1 fine syringe 2 00 

4 tuning forks giving chord 10 00 

1 apparatus for coefficient of expansion 5 00 

1 hollow insulated brass ball 5 00 

1 set model pumps 5 00 

3 Leyden jars 4 00 

1 Wheatstone slide wire bridge 8 00 103 25 

1 set Ampere's frames 10 00 

1 hydrostatic press 20 00 

1 thermo pile 5 00 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 31 

1 Wheatstone's bridge, box form $25 00 $163 25 

1 spectroscope 25 00 

1 compound microscope 25 00 213 25 

1 projecting lantern with vertical attachment 40 00 

1 analytical balance and weights 35 00 288 25 



BOTANY. 

The aim that should be insisted upon in the teaching of botany 
in the high schools is purely a pedagogical one, namely, to make 
of the student to just the extent of the botany studied, a more 
perfect, more powerful man or woman. When the course is 
completed, the teacher should be able to recognize something 
definite and positive as having been accomplished in each of the 
following points : 

The development of originality and independence of thought. 

The ability to see the relation between cause and effect. 

The faculty to observe closely, and to see a thing in all its 
parts and bearings. 

Training of the hand to express exactly and neatly, either 
by words or by drawings, what the eye sees and the mind con- 
ceives. 

Fixed habits of patient, unremitting inquiry; 

The practical question for the teacher of botany is simply 
this: What to select for his pupils to study and how to set 
them about it \ 

The first thing that should be done is to work out the condi- 
tions of plant life and economy, as illustrated by typical, closely 
related flowering plants. One might say to a class beginning 
the study of botany: "We arc to investigate during the course 
upon which we are now starting, the question of Getting on in 
the world from the standpoint of a 'plant" (as, for example, a 
geranium in full flower placed before pupils). "We want to 
find out by very careful study and experiment the conditions, 
• — the elements of success in life, considered solely from the 
point of view of the plants." Obviously this constitutes a 
problem, and a problem just as definite as a problem in algebra, 
or a question concerning the success of any man or nation. By 
thus stating a problem that can be clearly comprehended at the 



32 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

outset, little time will be lost; there will be no rambling or 
vagueness, and all the attention and energy of the student can 
be directed at once to the solution of the problem. 

In dealing with this problem of how does the plant succeed 
in life, one should begin where the life of the plant begins — 
with the seed, — and from that point trace its life-history step 
by step through its development into tire adult plant, to the 
point where the seeds are once more formed, thus completing 
the cycle of life. Of course, in all the phases and stages of this 
study of a life history, it is not necessary or desirable for the 
teacher to confine himself to the same plant or the same species 
of plants even. It is sufficient that any plants or parts of plants 
be used that are representatives of a common class. 

This work should be done at first hand; the student should 
have in his own hands the plant or its parts under considera- 
tion, and should have, moreover, tools and means with which 
to work. Keep prominent by constant emphasis through the 
material and work in hand, the great law of utility, or adapta- 
tion of structure to purpose. Lay stress upon the life relations 
of the plant to its environments of soil, air, light, and moisture, 
and upon the mutual relations and interdependence of the parts 
of a plant. 

In the study of each phase of this life-problem there should 
bo introduced, just so far as time will permit, other more or 
less closely related forms, including the fern and some others of 
the cryptogams, in order to illustrate the differences arising 
in different plants to adapt them more perfectly to their pecu- 
liar environments; to enable them to win more successfully in 
their struggle for a place in the world. At the same time, if 
this very important comparative work is properly developed 
by the teacher, it will become apparent to the pupil that there is 
a singleness, a oneness in essential structures and devices that 
unifies and simplifies the whole conception of plants. Accurate 
drawings and descriptions of things studied should be insisted 
upon, the drawings to be done on good paper with hard lead pen- 
cil, and the notes written in ink on the same paper. Moreover, 
the drawings and notes should be completed at the time the study 
is made, and should never he copied. Such a plan will eventu- 
ally lead to accurate work done at first trial ; while if the student 
is permitted to make rough sketches and hurried descriptions 
at the time he is studying the plant, to be "written up" after- 
wards, he will be encouraged to do careless, superficial observa- 
tion, and inaccurate work. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 33 

Perhaps the most satisfactory note book is one made from 
heavy paper, which can be obtained from any printing office, 
cut to a convenient size, and punched for binding in some con- 
venient manner, — the back of an old book or heavy manila card- 
hoard making a good binder. The best pencil for the drawings 
is a Faber "6 H." Good simple microscopes with hand-rests 
• ■an he had for $1.25 each. EnOugh should he provided by the 
school, together with dissecting knife and pair of needle-, to 
furnish each student with a set. Most of the work of this course 
requires no use of a compound microscope; but at times, in order 
to fully carry out the scheme, its need is imperative, and every 
high school should he supplied with enough to make it possible 
for students to personally study the microscopic structure of 
the things, an understanding of which is necessary to the full 
.solution of the problem they are investigating. 

If microscopes cannot he provided, then the teacher must sub- 
stitute drawings mi the blackboard, to he discussed and inter- 
preted by the class together. 

If the time of the teacher is so occupied that it is impossible 
to devote a period distinct from the recitation period to labora- 
tory work every day. it will he found the best plan to alternate 
the laboratory work with the recitation. Less ground can be 
covered in that way, hut in a much more satisfactory manner 
than if the students are left to work by themselves. In many 
cases the ground which the teacher attempts to cover is far too 
mudk; and the result is a superficial view that breeds a con- 
tempt for the study. Be content to do a little thoroughly. 

The plan outlined will not only secure the culture for the 
student, hut will result in giving him the fullest information, 
the greatest familiarity with the plant world about him; for 
there is no limit, — except the limit set by time, — to the amount 
of comparative study that may he done. But a comparative 
study of plants implies a clearly defined point of departure, 
— a type thoroughly mastered on which to base comparisons; 
and with that accomplished each new plant that is introduced 
will be alive with meaning based upon its relationships, and these 
meanings will all fit together to form a perfect whole, instead 
of being a mass of dead, disconnected facts, or unrelated, un- 
organized items of information. 

For the use of the teacher, the following text and reference 
books will be found helpful: Spaulding's Introduction to 
Botany, (D. C. Heath & Co.) ; Coulter's Plant Relations, Dar- 
3 



34 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

win's Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants, ( D. Apple- 
ton & Co.); Bergen's Introduction to Botany, (Giim & Co.); 
Arthur, Barnes & Coulter's Handbook of Plant Dissection, 
Kerner's X at oral History of Plants. Bessey's Botany, (Henry 
Holt & Co.) ; Bower's Practical Botany. Miller's Fertilization 
of Flowers, (Macmillan Co.); Bailey's Collector's Handbook, 
(Bates, Salem, Mass. ) ; Gray's Structural Botany, and Goodale's 
Physiological Botany, (American Book Co.). 



ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 

In the three years course of study prepared by the state 
superintendent appears Elements of Agriculture as an alternate 
with Botany. When this subject is taken by a class in lieu 
of Botany, it is suggested that a text hook like James' Agri- 
culture, published by D. Appleton & Co., or Bailey's Principles 
of Agriculture, published by The Macmillan Co., be made the 
basis of the work. 

Observations of the actual conditions of plant and animal 
life treated in the text should be made by pupils under direc- 
tion of the teacher. These observations should be supplemented 
by illustrative experiments conducted by the teacher. 

Golf's Principles of Plant Culture gives a suggestive syllabus 
of laboratory work which will prove helpful to the teacher. The 
book can be obtained from Des Forges eV ( '<>., Milwaukee. 



PSYCHOLOGY. 

The study of psychology in the high schools must necessarily 
be elementary and will be successful in so far only as it is simple 
and direct. Xo effort should be made to teach a system of 
philosophy or to engage in metaphysical disputation. The 
end will be reached if the pupil is taught what the mind can do 
and how it does it. A simple scheme of the mental faculties 
should be presented and the pupil should learn the office of each 
and the order in which it is developed. Definitions of mental 
powers and processes should be given, so far as possible, in 
simple, unequivocal English. When it is found necessary to 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 35 

use a foreign term, its meaning and the necessity for its use 
should be clearly shown, and the pupil should be required to use 
it in his recitations until the term acquires the force and dis- 
tinctness of a native idiom. The teacher should remember 
that mental methods can be defined and illustrated only by ap- 
peals to individual experience, and that facts and theories are 
worthless to the student until he finds them there. Funda- 
mental processes, such as perception and consciousness, should 
be clearly realized by each pupil, but no effort should be made 
to explain their source. 

The influence of the emotions and the will in determining 
character and conduct may be explained and illustrated. The 
mind is the instrument through whose activity all accretions of 
knowledge come. * The study of its powers, modes of action and 
limitations is noble in itself and ought to be rich in results. 
The examination of the sequence in the unfolding of its powers 
furnishes the guide lines for student and teacher. The habit 
of sober and accurate thought, which this study necessitates is 
the prerequisite of wise action. To impart the power of 
fixing the attention, of holding the mind steadily to the subject 
in hand is preeminently the province of psychological study, 
and is the highest outcome of intellectual training. 



THEORY AND ART OF TEACHING. 

Sec. 496a of the Wisconsin Statutes authorizes the state 
superintendent "to prepare a course or courses of study suitable 
to be pursued in the free high school," and specifically states 
that : "The courses of study herein authorized to be pursued 
shall include instruction in the Theory and Art of Teaching, 
and the organization, management, and course of study of un- 
graded schools, and all examinations shall cover these subjects." 
It will thus be seen that the state superintendent has no choice 
in the matter of requiring instruction in the Theory and Art 
of Teaching in the high schools. Provision must be made for 
this study in each course excepting the courses in' manual train- 
ing. It should be understood by teachers and members of 
school boards that this is not a study which is of value to those 
pupils only who expect to teach in the schools of the state. 
The pupils in the public schools will soon be in positions where 



36 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

they will be responsible for the development and maintenance 

of those schools. The -work in Theory and Art of Teaching 
may be so broadened as to include a consideration of the proper 
organization of the public schools, the necessity for an intelli- 
gent interest in their welfare, and in what is necessary to secure 
that welfare. 

This subject if properly taught, may afford as valuable a 
training for citizenship as any in the course ; it is also of high 
value as a disciplinary study. 

The best text book for use in the study of pedagogy is the 
Manual of the Course of Study for Common Schools issued by 
the state superintendent. It should be made the basis of the 
work in this subject. As an aid to the study of the Manual a 
good reference library should be provided, containing texts on 
school management, pedagogy, courses of study, etc. 

In the study of the Manual the teacher should emphasize the 
following: 

I. Hon: to study the Manual. See that the pupils are fa- 
miliar with the uses of the numbered paragraphs for cross refer- 
ences, and the meaning of the divisions of each subject; (a) 
primary form, (b) middle form, (c) upper form. 

II. It will be observed that each subject has a general aim 
with which the pupil should be familiar. Each form has also 
the three following divisions: 

(a) The specific purpose in the work of each subject in each 
form. 

(b) A course of study with suggestions to teachers upon 
the same. 

(c) Tests for promotion. 

III. Before leaving the study of the Manual the members of 
the class should lie familiar with the tests tor promotion of 
pupils from each form in all the branches taught in the public 
schools. It may not be too much to require pupils to mem- 
orize these promotion tests. 

IV. It will be well to familiarize pupils with the lesson plan 
and its application as suggested in "Some Fundamentals in 
Teaching" in the introduction to the tenth edition of the Man- 
ual. Drill work with the class in pedagogy in daily recitation 
plans should give definite ideas of the aim to be accomplished, 
and the method of reaching it. 

When time permits it will be advisable to take the class to 
observe the lower grades and to see the principles of the Man- 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 37 

ual exemplified. Some schools carry on practice work in the 
grades, but this proceeding is of questionable value unless it 
shall be directed and personally supervised by the principal. 

When the study of library reading is begun it will be well 
for the teacher to have a copy of the List of Books for Town- 
ship Libraries, prepared by the state superintendent, accessible 
to the members of the class. Some of the books found in this 
list can probably be obtained from the school library, and defi- 
nite instruction as to the best use of these books should be given. 

Those students who expect to become teachers should be en- 
couraged to read such books as Page's Theory and Practice, 
White's School Management, portions of White's Pedagogy, 
and Miss Arnold's Way Marks for Teachers. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



MATHEMATICS. 



ARITHMETIC. 

Before leaving the high school the student should have ability 
to secure results accurately and rapidly in addition, subtrac- 
tion, multiplication, and division of simple and denominate 
numbers, common and decimal fractions ; in factoring numbers 
less than 100 ; in finding G. (J. D. and L. C. M. ; m extraction 
of square and cube roots ; in the mensuration of triangles, 
quadrilaterals and circles, prisms, pyramids, cones, cylinders, 
and spheres. 

He should be able to form and solve proportions and to analyze 
problems giving rise to proportions. 

He should know the fractional equivalents of the different 
per cents, commonly used, as well as he knows the multiplica- 
tion table ; be able to find readily any per cent, of a number ; 
to find any number, knowing any per cent, of it ; to find what 
per cent, one number is of another. The student should be 
able to change problems under each of these three general cases 
to problems in common fractions and in decimal fractions, and 
to solve them as such. He should be able to apply the prin- 
ciples of percentage to operations in profit and loss, commission, 
trade .discount, insurance, and taxes, and should be master of 
one good method of computing interest, and be able to determine 
the amount due on a note on which partial payments have been 
made. 

When dealing with small, simple whole numbers, and with 
common fractions whose denominators are twelve or less and 
with small compound denominate numbers, he should be able to 
secure correct results rapidly without written work. 

He should be able to give a clear analysis of the work in 
solving problems, and to state in order the processes involved 
in the solution of problems, not only when the work has all been 
performed, but when it is indicated without being performed. 

Much time will be saved in the work in arithmetic, if the 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 39 

student will learn to perform the fundamental operations ac- 
curately, and in the later portions of his work, indicate or state 
the operations to be performed in the solution of problems with- 
out actually performing them. 

Mental training arises more largely from determining what 
operations are to be performed under certain conditions, than 
in the mechanical performance of the operations which are 
always those of addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. 

The student should have the power to state and solve original 
problems, to illustrate general principles and to furnish oppor- 
tunities for applying the rules for special cases. 

He should be able to state clearly, concisely, and accurately, 
the definitions of terms commonly used in arithmetic, and to 
illustrate their meaning by examples or otherwise. 

Unless he can improve upon the definitions given in the books, 
he should learn them as there stated. This statement also ap- 
plies to the rules for performing operations. 

It is not meant that the student should learn the words of the 
book without a knowledge of their meaning, but that he should 
understand the meaning of terms in arithmetic and know how 
to perform operations; then if he cannot improve upon the 
formulation of definitions and rules given in the books, he 
should learn those as the orderly statement of what is in his 
mind. In the solution of problems, students should be able to 
give reasons clearly and readily for each operation. 

Good oral and written expression is as essential as the ability 
to solve difficult arithmetical problems. 



ALGEBRA. 

At the conclusion of the work in algebra students should 
possess the ability to give clear, accurate, and concise defini- 
tions of terms commonly used in algebra ; the distinction be^ 
tween positive and negative quantities; a clear statement of 
the processes in adding, subtracting, multiplying, and divid- 
ing algebraic quantites; an explanation of the laws governing 
signs in subtraction and multiplication. They should be able 
to state and apply the following formulas: 

1. The square of the sum of two quantities is equal to the 
square of the first, plus twice the product of the two, plus the 
square of the second. 



40 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

2. The square of the difference of two quantities is equal to 
the square of the first, minus twice the product of the two, plus, 
the square of the second. 

3. The product of the sum and the difference of two quanti- 
ties is equal to the difference of their squares. 

4. The product of the sum or difference of two quantities,, 
into one of them plus or minus a third quantity, equals the 
square of the first quantity, the sum of the second and third 
quantities into the first, and the product of the second and third 
quantities. 

5. The cube of the sum or difference of two quantities equals 
the cube of the first, plus or minus three times the square of the 
first into the second, plus three times the first into the square 
of the second, plus or minus the cube of the second. 

In factoring, the student should be able to recognize the fol- 
lowing described expressions and to factor them : 

1. Trinomial squares. 

2. The difference of two squares. 

3. A trinomial whose first term is a square, and whose last- 
term is the product of two factors whose sum into the square 
root of the first term equals the second term. 

4. The sum or difference of two cubes. 

The student should be able to find the greatest common 
divisor and the least common multiple by the method of factor- 
ing; should have a knowledge of and ability to apply axioms 
on which operations in equations are based ; to give clear and 
orderly statements of steps in the solution of equations with 
explanation of the process in each case ; to translate the lan- 
guage of problems into the algebraic language of equations and 
the reverse. 

With fair ability in the solution of the equations, much of 
the time ordinarily devoted to the solution of problems may be 
profitably spent in stating the equations to which the problems 
give rise, assuming the ability of the pupil to solve the equa- 
tions without actual performance of the work. The student 
should be able to state clearly and apply readily laws govern- 
ing exponents, co-efficients, and signs in raising a binomial to- 
any power; to extract the square and cube roots of numerical 
and of literal expressions, and to explain fully the process of 
squaring or cubing a binominal of the form a + x, or 20 + 5 ; to 
determine the parts of which the square or cube is composed, 
and from a consideration of these parts to formulate the steps. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 41 

iii order in the process of extracting the roots ; to make clear and 
accurate statements as to the force of positive and negative, 
integral and fractional exponents ; to prove that a = 1 and that 

a-" 1 _ — He should be able to state : when a radical quality 

is in its simplest form and how to reduce it to that form; how 
to change the degree of a radical, how to add, subtract, multiply 
and divide radicals, and should be skillful in performing these 
operations. He should have the ability to solve equations con- 
taining radicals ; also quadratic equations, pure and affected. 
In a solution of affected quadratic equations of the form 
x 2 + 2px = q, the student should be able to deduce the 

formula x = — p ± /ij + p' 3 and to use this formula in 
dealing with such equations. He should be able to solve si- 
multaneous quadratic equations in the following cases: When 
one equation is of the first degree ; when the equations are 
symmetrical with respect to x and y; when each equation is 
of the second degree and homogeneous ; to form a quadratic 
equation when its roots are known, and from this to show the 
application of factoring in a determination of the roots of 
affected quadratic equations. He should be able to discuss fully 
the general equation x 2 + 2px = q, showing the values of the 
roots for different values of p and q ; to give a general discus- 
sion of the properties of proportions, and to solve problems 
involving the use of proportions. 

The character of the student's work in algebra depends as 
largely upon his ability to make correct, clear, and concise 
statements of definitions, processes or rules, and steps in the per- 
formance of algebraic operations in the solution of problems, 
and in general demonstrations, as in his ability to perform 
operations, to solve problems, and to give demonstrations. 



GEOMETRY. 

Classes commencing geometry usually need some illustrative 
exercises in the use of the common drawing instruments and 
in the practical application of a few of the principles of geometry 
to measurements, to drawing and to the affairs of every day life. 
Time is frequently saved by such instruction at this stage and 
interest is certain to be excited. 



42 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

Since geometry is essentially a disciplinary study, those 
methods of teaching are best that most tend to develop thought 
power in the pupils. Two things are essential : 

1st. That the subject matter should be so prepared that it is 
difficult enough to call forth the best effort of the pupil, and 
yet sufficient help or suggestion should be given so as to prevent 
his becoming discouraged. 

2d. When the lesson has been prepared by the pupil he 
should be thoroughly tested upon it by questions, lie should 
be called upon, in the demonstration, for instance; to show tha 
relation of each step to the others, the authority for each state- 
ment, the reason for the construction employed, etc. In other 
words, he should succeed or fail in the recitation, as he stands 
or falls under a series of rigorous questions. 

In the preparation of the lesson, independence should be 
encouraged. The minimum amount of growth is acquired by 
the pupil if he simply rea,ds the author's demonstration and 
assents to it. Induce him as soon as possible to omit, in his 
reading, the author's quotation of authority, and to supply it 
himself from his knowledge of the subject. Exercises adapted 
to the pupil's stage of advancement should be frequently given. 

It is an excellent plan to write out suggestions for the dem- 
onstration of one of the propositions of the lesson upon the 
blackboard, that may enable the pupil to work out a demonstra- 
tion for himself: or, suggestions may be given for a difficult 
exercise, or for a demonstration different from the one given. 

If the pupils can be induced to be independent, different dem- 
onstrations may be produced, and one student may work out 
more than one. The suggestions should be clear and adapted to 
the ability of the class. 

The student should be led to see that geometry is a logical body 
of thought, in a sense integral ; that it does not consist of many 
unrelated propositions, but that each is dependent on others 
and that all have been built up by the combination of a few 
axioms and simple demonstrated principles. 

In review the greater proportion of the Work should be origi- 
nal. The time required for this kind of work is not easily esti- 
mated, and it is better to err on the side of generosity. Do not 
explain at the first difficulty, but let the proposition stand as a 
challenge to renewed effort. 

In a review recitation it is well at times to have a pupil give 
accurately and in order, the propositions upon which a demon- 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 43 

stration depends. A successful device to stimulate thought and 
give concentration is that of describing the figure, lettering the 
lines, and then calling upon some student to demonstrate orally 
from the mental picture he has made. 



BOOKKEEPING. 

It is not to be supposed that the subject of bookkeeping can 
receive thorough treatment in the high school. Indeed, it is 
doubtful if any schools, other than those of our larger cities 
which are well equipped with a strong teaching force, can take 
up the subject of double entry bookkeeping. 

The most that can be done with bookkeeping in the one term 
allotted to its consideration is to teach the pupil the uses and 
practical application of various business forms, including let- 
ters, bills, receipts, drafts, checks, telegrams, etc. Drill in 
these forms will enable the average pupil to become familiar 
with the minor details of business life and give him a reason- 
able foundation for the intricacies of bookkeeping as found in 
the actual business world. 

Single entry bookkeeping should be taught and the pupil 
should be thoroughly familiarized with the meaning of debit 
and credit, and the different accounts, such as merchandise, in- 
dividual, profit and loss, bills payable, bills receivable, discount, 
etc. 



44 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



HISTORY. 



THE PURPOSE OF HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION IN 

SCHOOLS. 

It is now generally agreed that the utility of history as a high 
school study arises chiefly from the training which the subject 
affords to the judgment, and secondarily, from the training of 
the perception, imagination and memory. "To prepare the 
child for judgments in actual life the materials must resemble 
as nearly as possible the conditions of actual life. Such ma- 
terials are found in history and found there in greater degree 
than in any other subject." The value of historical instruc- 
tion in preparing students for good and intelligent citizenship 
is obvious. Aside from the body of information acquired, the 
weighing of evidence, the comparative study of political systems 
of other countries and of other times, and the formation of 
judgments upon men and measures, constitute a training most 
useful to the future citizen. Dr. Arnold expressed the utility 
of instruction in history, civics, and economics in the schools 
very well when he said: "It is clear that in whatever it is our 
duty to act, those matters also it is our duty to study." The 
teacher will find a fuller discussion of this subject in the Report 
of the Committee of Seven, and in Hinsdale's How to Teach 
and Study History, chapters i and iv. The importance given 
to the judgment in historical training should increase with the 
higher grades ; and the judgment itself can best be exercised 
when the pupil's perception, imagination, and memory supply 
him with the necessary data. It is hardly necessary to say that 
by the imagination, in this case, is meant the power of the pu- 
pil to place himself in the attitude of the people of other times 
and of other countries. 

It should not be the ideal of history teaching to furnish a bare 
outline of names and dates, a well proportioned set of pigeon- 
holes to be filled up in after life. Such a process, however at- 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 45 

tractive in theory, is not workable in fact; the names and dates 
come to have less than the value of algebraic symbols of un- 
known quantities. But it by no means follows that history 
can be taught without accurate knowledge of the must signifi- 
cant historical landmarks. These are means to an end, and 
should be so illuminated with concrete detail as to be held as 
vital elements rather than as a hare and dead weight on the 
memory. Institutions and men should he made real for the stu- 
dent by sufficient concrete and intelligible discussion of their 
essential characteristics. As a part of the training in judgment, 
and in the interest of mental economy, they should be taught 
to observe lines of causation, to distinguish between the endur- 
ing and the fleeting, between the essential and the non-essentials 
in history, and the important should be made clear, at whatever 
cost of time. To the objection that this mode of treating his- 
torical study as a training in judgment takes more time, the an- 
swer of the late Mary Sheldon Barnes is conclusive: "Good 
friend, it does; and it takes more time to solve a problem in arith- 
metic than to read its answer; ami more time to read a play of 
Shakespeare than to read that Shakespeare was the greatest 
dramatist of all the ages; and more time finally to read the 
American constitution and the American newspaper, and make 
up your mind how to vote your own vote, than it does to be put 
into a 'block of five.' But what is time for!" 



M ETHOD. 

The books mentioned elsewhere, which give bibliographies of 
works on historical method, render an extensive discussion of 
the subject here unnecessary. In general, it may be pointed out 
that the methods should be those which conduce to a training 
of the judgment. A text-book should, in most cases be used 
as a basis of work, and to give proportion, order, and defmite- 
ness to the instruction. ( Collateral material, used in additional 
reading, and in presentation of topical reports, is essential, and 
this involves a good library as much as modern science teach- 
ing involves a laboratory and apparatus. The moderate use of 
sources for illustration and for disciplinary work akin to labo- 
ratory practice is especially helpful in the later part of the 
course. It aids in training the student to extract the impor- 



46 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

tant elements out of his reading, develops the critical faculty, 
and gives the student some impression of the sort of materials 
out of which the text-hook was made. Written work should be 
increasingly used in the later part of the course ; the practice 
of keeping note books is to be commended. 

History should be so taught as to make use of the studies of 
geography, (physiographic, economic, and political), literature,, 
economics, civics, and similar subjects. All may be made mu- 
tually helpful. The use of pictures, of which there are now 
a multiplicity of cheap reprints, will aid in bringing the archi- 
tecture, sculpture, and painting of past ages before the pupil ;. 
and these are important aids in understanding the culture of a 
period. Maps and atlases should be (-(instantly used, includ- 
ing outline maps for constructive work. When the student is 
allowed to make something, whether a topical report or an il- 
lustrative map, his interest is aroused, and the subject takes 
on a definiteness that is well worth the time. Lantern slides' 
make possible a large use of maps and pictures at comparatively 
slight expense. 



REFERENCE BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 

The teacher should have certain recent books which contain 
discussions of method, bibliographies, library lists, topics, etc. 
With them he will be able to suit his appliances and methods 
to the peculiar needs of the school. A brief list of some manuals 
which satisfy these needs is here given. For general list of ref- 
erence books in history, see List of Books for High School Li- 
braries isued by the state superintendent, 1900. 

The Study of history in Schools. Report to the American Historical 
Association by the Committee of Seven. The Macmillan Co., 1899. 

This committee was appointed at the request of the National Educa- 
tional Association's Committee on College Entrance Requirements. The 
Committee of Seven was composed of persons who had experience in 
secondary, as well as in collegiate instruction, and who studied the 
actual conditions of history instruction in this country and in Europe, 
by extensive correspondence and by personal examinations. The Re- 
port treats the subject independently of the special needs of the min- 
ority who fit for college. It contains the latest and best general dis- 
cussion of the purposes of the teaching of history in schools, the cm*- 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 47 

riculum, methods of instruction, bibliography of books and articles on 
the teaching of history, lists of maps, atlases, etc. It is essential to all 
history teachers. 

Channing and Hart, Guide to American History, Ginn & Co. 

Equally important for teachers of the history of the United States. 
The book contains a discussion of the place of American History in the 
curriculum; methods; library lists for small and large libraries; spe- 
cial lists of books of travel, biographies, state and local histories, 
sources, government records, works of statesmen, sources and illustra- 
tive material, periodicals, etc. There are practical chapters on class ex- 
ercises, readings, written work, tests, etc. The second part of the book 
consists of a very complete set of topics and references. 

Adams (G. B.), European History: an Outline of Its Development. 
Macmillan, 1899. 

This contains an admirably selected list of books, useful to the school 
library and others useful to the teacher, for each period, and there are 
topical references. 



CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED 

STATUS. 

In the High School Courses of Study one year has been given 
to the study of U. S. History, the third term of the year being 
allotted to the constitutional history of the United States. The 
importance of this phase of our country's history demands that 
it should have a larger place in the high school course than has 
heretofore been given to it. Probably the best text books on this 
subject are Fiske's Civil Government, published by Houghton, 
Mifflin <fc Co., and Hinsdale's American Government, published 
by the Werner School Book Co. 

In dealing with this subject the teacher should bear in mind 
the historical events connected with the transformations which 
have occurred in the development of our present system of gov- 
ernment. 

Beginning with the landing of the English at Jamestown, and 
the Pilgrims at Plymouth, definite but different forms of gov- 
ernment were brought to our shores and established, and later 
they played their respective parts in shaping our laws. Their 
gradual development and westward progress along the parallels 
of latitude should be traced with the historical development of 



iS WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

the colonies. Attention should be paid to the various powers 
and functions of the legislative bodies which existed in colonial 
times, and their processes of growth into existing- legislative 
assemblies. 

Of special importance is the study of the transitional period 
from L782 to 1789, when the articles of confederation were on 
trial, and when the present constitution was framed and adopted. 
Some attention to the history of the constitutional convention 
as given in the federal papers will be found very profitable. 
Fiske's "Critical Period" covers this ground admirably. It is 
also well to know the history of the "bill of rights," which 
includes the first ten amendments to the constitution; also how 
the method of election of the president and the vice president 
was changed by amendment, and the historical story of the 
amendments which resulted from the civil war. 

Aids in this study may be found by reference to Training 
for Citizenship, ten cents, published by the Werner School Book 
Co., Chicago; Formation of the Union, T."> cents, published by 
Longmans, Green & Co., X. Y. 



OOXSTITUTIOX OF THE UXITED STATES. 

Provision is made by statute for the teaching of the Consti- 
tution of the United States and of Wisconsin in the public 
schools. 

A knowledge of the fundamental laws of the land is indis- 
pensable to every citizen, and with this end in view the consti- 
tutions should be taught, the more important clauses being mem- 
orized. The error, however, should not be made of treating 
the subject in a meaningless, routine manner, for every section 
and every clause possesses a life which more or less affects our 
every-day existence. Let the teacher make the branch a prac- 
tical one, losing no opportunity of bringing out its full mean- 
ing by the application of current history or local events. In 
this way an interest will be excited, and more than all, the great 
object in the teaching of civil government will be more nearly 
attained, viz., to create law-abiding citizens. The young people 
must early learn the duties of the citizen and the individual 
responsibility of that citizen toward maintaining a stable govern- 
ment for the nation. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 49 



CONSTITUTION OF WISCONSIN. 

The Constitution of Wisconsin should be treated in its 
analogies to the national constitution, at the time of considera- 
tion of the leading topics of that branch. It will therefore not be 
necessary to spend much time in a special study of the Wiscon- 
sin constitution. In general, the two are much alike. The 
principal study should be put upon the important parts of the 
state constitution not already considered in connection with the 
constitution of the United States. Omit unimportant facts. 
It will be well to deal with the different forms of governments, 
as administered in the county, town, village, city, and school 
districts. These governments come within the immediate 
knowledge of the children or their parents, and a study of details 
will be found profitable. It will be well also to take up the 
subject of elections. The present system of voting, known as 
the "Australian" method, may be illustrated by securing 
samples of the ballot. The method of nominations through pri- 
mary caucuses is important. 

If there is a literary society in connection with the school, 
much assistance can be given to the subject of civil government 
by providing for debates upon important national questions 7 for 
moot courts, and mock legislative deliberations. Every oppor- 
tunity to visit the state legislature, the county board of supervis- 
ors, the town meeting, and other assemblages of governmental 
character, should be improved. Throughout the entire work on 
this subject an attempt should be made to have pupils realize 
the essentials of good citizenship. A knowledge of constitu- 
tions and of the details of governmental activities may make 
more intelligent citizens, but it does not necessarily make better 
ones. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

The study of political economy will be chiefly useful to pupils 
in a high school as an introduction to the serious and thoughtful 
consideration of the practical affairs of life. Its purpose is not 
go much to present a body of knowledge as to form a habit of and 
give a basis for estimating economic values and results. To 



50 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

many persons the statement that values originate in labor, and 
that wealth represents services performed, comes at first as a 
great novelty. The full realization of the truth and of its 
bearing on various ways of money getting current in society, 
comes not from memorizing the text!; but from an abundance 
of illustrations brought out. in the class-room, with the usual 
accompanying comment and criticism. Possibly no other study 
in the course so urgently demands the conversational method of 
conducting a recitation, and can so ill endure the verbal mem- 
orizing of text-books. 

Pupils who have studied the conditions affecting the produc- 
tion of wealth, including the division of labor, the consequent 
frequent separation of the capitalist from the laborer and the 
growth of combinations on each side, should be better able to 
read intelligently the current discussions of the "labor problem" 
in leading journals and magazines. If they are led to read 
such discussions of important questions and to subject the 
articles to the test of measurement by the principles stated and 
accepted previously, there may be less satisfaction with dogmatic 
statements, but there should result a wider interest in human 
affairs and current news, with a broader toleration of divergent 
views. Established facts and accepted theories may be made in- 
telligible by copious illustrations. Teachers may make clear 
what facts and principles are involved in the settlement of any 
controverted subject, but should avoid all fruitless discussion. 
Pupils must learn what taxes are, what kinds are known, what 
arguments are advanced to support them, how their imposition 
or removal may affect industries ; but all debates having per- 
sonal or political tendencies are unfortunate. There is no 
place in a public school for partisanship or propagandism. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 51 



LANGUAGE. 



COMPOSITION. 

I. Elementary. — This is required in the first year of all the 
courses, being a full study for the three-year and the four-year 
English and German courses, while one term is provided for the 
Latin, modern classical, and ancient classical courses. 

The work in composition during the first year should be con- 
fined to the essentials of English. By this is meant not a 
separate branch, but a concentration of effort upon the essen- 
tials. Whatever in grammar is necessary for such work in 
composition as will give accuracy and facility in expression^ 
either" written or oral, should be taught if it is not already 
known.. This knowledge should be utilized and applied through 
drill in the Composition work, until its value i> shown in im- 
proved written and oral forms of expression fixed as habit. 

It is believed that in most cases it will be best to begin the 
work in composition at the beginning of the year, teaching 
those portions of the grammar referred to above, whenever 
their necessity becomes apparent, and always in relation to 
and as a basis for the composition work. This plan may require 
some instruction in grammar every day ; it may necessitate 
suspending the work in composition for a day or a week, devot- 
ing the time to mastering the portions of grammar needed ; but 
always this work should be followed by such work in composi- 
tion as will require an application of the grammatical knowledge 
just required. 

This plan will give the pupils something fresh at the begin- 
ning of the year, something that will arouse a greater interest 
than a term's review of grammar. It will concentrate the study 
of grammar upon the essentials and make clear to pupils the 
value of these essentials in determining and fixing correct forms 
of expression. Some most excellent work in oral composition 
may be done in connection with literary reading by requiring 



52 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

pupils to prepare for and make oral reports on books read. This 
work in elementary composition, in order to cover the essen- 
tials of English, should include drill and practice in emphasizing 
the following important features : 

1. Punctuation. 

2. Capitalization. 

3. Abbreviations. 

4. The structure of the sentence. 

5. The paragraph. 

6. The more important figures of speech. 

7. Style, which includes choice and use of words. 

8. Discourse. 

(a) Kinds — descriptive, narrative, imaginative, 
biographical, etc. 

In the classical courses where much attention should be given 
to the use of good English in translation, it will not be neces- 
sary to give so much drill, and a major part of the one term 
allowed, should be devoted to the technical phases of composf- 
tion correlated with the necessary grammar. In all this work 
it is well to remember that the structure of the sentence is the 
nucleus about which all the other phases of the work should 
gather. 

II. Advanced. — The work in advanced composition will 
depend upon the progress the pupil has made in the elementary 
work of the subject during the first year. A careful determina- 
tion of the pupils' knowledge of the topics enumerated above 
should be made to ascertain the starting point in the advanced 
work. This study does not mean Rhetoric, although much of the 
work usually embodied in the text-books upon that subject can 
be done, if the class is sufficiently advanced. The work of the 
elementary course should be elaborated, continued drill being 
given in the writing of English as embodied, in the letter, essay, 
and oration. Oral exercises in connection with debates, both 
prepared and impromptu, should not be neglected, and public 
speaking by pupils is a most excellent means of training them 
to use language properly and "to think upon their feet," 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 53 



EXPRESSIVE READING. 

Expressive Reading has become a lost art in our schools. 
Training the pupil to express properly and clearly in spoken 
language the thought he has gained from the printed page, has 
been subordinated to a study of the rhetorical and intellectual 
phases of literature. It is true much attention has been given 
to securing the thought, and this is a most essential requirement 
of good reading. 

The purpose of emphasizing the expressive phase of reading 
in our high schools under the subject "Expressive Reading," is 
to make better readers. It is not sufficient that the pupil be 
taught to get the thought from the printed page and to express 
this thought in logical language to others, but his language 
must be pleasing and effective. This is the purely mechanical 
phase of reading. 

The idea here is not how much ground is covered in a recita- 
tion, but how well the little undertaken is accomplished. Two 
or three lines a day thoroughly mastered in the art of right 
expression, is far better than a superficial lesson of several 
paragraphs or pag'es. Good models are of inestimable value to 
the pupils, hence it would be well for the teacher to select dif- 
ferent types of literature which represent the various phases 
of expression and read them to the pupils as he believes they 
should be read. This suggestion calls into play the teacher's 
own art of reading and consequently means that he should be 
thoroughly prepared to practice that which he teaches. 

In the teaching of vocal expression the pupils should be drilled 
in examples which illustrate: (1) force, (2) inflection, (3) 
time, (4) quantity, (5) pauses, (6) volume, (7) stress, (8) 
quality, (9) pitch, (10) melody. It is not necessary for the 
pupils to know the technical definitions of these terms. 

Daily drill exercises, occupying the first few minutes of each 
recitation, in pronunciation as indicated by the use of diacritical 
marks ; in distinct articulation ; in emphasis ; and in spelling by 
sound will be found very helpful. 

In selecting a text-book for use in Expressive Reading classes, 
care should be taken to secure a book giving selections covering 
a wide range in matter and style of composition within the 
students' comprehension. 

The reading of poetry calls for special effort. The sing- 
song, meaningless renditions of poetry now heard in many of 



54 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

our schools are a libel upon the pedagogy of reading. The 
teacher should patiently struggle to overcome these faults and 
insist upon careful attention being paid to rhetorical pauses and 
to all phases of reading as indicated above. 

The aim in expressive reading should be to develop power 
and skill in expressing the thought of an author in such a man- 
ner as to show that the reader understands that thought and 
enters into the feeling of the author. 

The power and skill of the reader should be such as to make 
the hearer easily understand the thoughts and appreciate the 
feeling of the author. 

Ease on the part of reader and pleasure on the part of the 
hearer are ends which should always be kept in view. 

GERMAN. 

It should 1)0 continually borne in mind by the teacher that 
German should be taught in the interest of good teaching and- 
not in the interest of the most expeditious preparation for 
college. Symmetrical training in the secondary school must 
keep in view more things than are likely to be "required" of the 
candidate at his examination for admission to college. The col- 
loquial side of this subject has been much neglected in high 
schools and the aim of teachers should be not only to secure a 
ready reading of the German texts but also to give the pupils 
ability to converse in the German language upon ordinary 
topics by the time they have completed the work of the second 
year. 

The following courses of study and suggestions are condensed 
from the report of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern 
Language Association of America, which may be found in the 
proceedings of the National Educational Association for 1899, 
page 732. A copy of the report may be secured by remitting 
twenty-live cents to Irwin Shepard, secretary National Educa- 
tional Association, Winona, Minn. ; teachers are advised to 
secure a copy of this report. 

THE FIRST TEAK'S COURSE IX GERMAN. 

A. The aim of the instruction. — At the end of the element- 
ary course in German the pupil should be able to read at 
sight, and to translate, if called upon, by Avay of proving his 
ability to read, a passage of very easy dialogue or narrative 
prose, help being given upon unusual words and constructions; 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 55 

to put into German short English sentences taken from the lan- 
guage of every day life or based upon the text given for transla- 
tion, and to answer questions upon the rudiments of the gram- 
mar, as defined below. 

B. The work to be done. — During the first year the work 
should comprise: (1) careful drill upon pronunciation; (2) 
the memorizing and frequent repetition of easy colloquial 
sentences; (-'5) drill upon the rudiments of grammar, that is, 
upon the inflection of the articles, of such nouns as belong to the 
language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, weak verbs, 
and the more usual strong verbs; also upon the use of the more 
common prepositions, the simpler uses of the modal auxiliaries 
and the elementary rules of syntax and word order; (1) 
abundant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the 
forms and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness 
in the reproduction of natural forms of expression ; (5) the read- 
ing of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from a reader, 
with constant practice in translating into German easy varia- 
tions upon sentences selected from the reading lesson (the 
teacher giving the English), and in the reproduction from 
memory of sentences previously read. 

THE SECOND YEAR'S COURSE IX GERMAN. 

A. The aim of the instruction. — At the end of the advanced 
course the pupil should be able to read at sight German prose 
of ordinary difficulty, whether recent or classical ; to put into 
German a connected passage of simple Engiish, paraphrased 
from a given text in German ; to answer any grammatical ques- 
tions relating to usual forms and essential principles of the 
language, including syntax and word-formation, and to translate 
and explain (so far as explanation may be necessary) a passage 
of classical literature taken from some text previously studied. 

B. The work to he (tone. — During the second year the work 
should comprise: (1) The reading of from 150 to 200 pages 
of literature in the form of easy stories and plays; (2) accom- 
panying practice, as before, in the translation into German of 
easy variations upon the matter read, and also in the off-hand re- 
production, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, of the 
substance of short and easy, selected passages; (3) continued 
drill upon the rudiments of the grammar, directed to the ends 
of enabling the pupil, first, to use his knowledge with facility 
in the formation of sentences, and, second, to state his knowl- 
edge correctly in the technical language of grammar. 



56 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

Suggestions : — 1. Pronunciation : 

The first matter of importance for the beginner is the mastery 
of pronunciation. Drill upon the subject should be kept up 
steadily and inexorably until right habits are fixed. 

2. The memorizing of colloquial sentences : 

The proper starting point in teaching German is the vocabu- 
lary and phraseology of the language, as represented in its fa- 
miliar forms of expression. 

The teacher must have the sense of being at home in it. A 
learner's knowledge is to be made second nature, but his facul- 
ties and organs must be trained to respond instantly and natur- 
ally to the foreign symbols whether they are seen or heard. To 
accomplish this the learner should memorize easy colloquial 
sentences. These sentences should be nothing but natural, oft- 
recurring forms of expression. The pupil's repetitions should 
be elicited by questions addressed to him in German, the drill 
should take the form of short dialogues without the use of 
English. 

The object of the drill in colloquial German is not to load 
the memory with things supposed to be highly valuable in them- 
selves, but to beget confidence through familiarity with the lan- 
guage in its usual and natural modes of expression. As poetry 
is the language of emotion, which is more or less artificial, it 
will be advantageous to occupy the recitation with well chosen 
dialogues. The poems selected for memorizing should be few 
and short, chosen with reference to the simplicity and natural- 
ness of their expression. The first year's work, however, does 
not call for many poems. 

3. Grammar : 

The work in grammar should be taken after a few prelimi- 
nary lessons, but for several weeks the grammar lessons should 
be short and easy, so as to allow an abundance of time each 
day for colloquial exercises and drill upon pronunciation ; this 
practice should be maintained, but as the course unfolds the 
study of grammar and the performance of exercises directly re- 
lated to the same may properly be allowed to absorb the increas- 
ing portion of the time. Grammar is for the sake of the lan- 
guage, and not the language for the sake of grammar. Let 
the teacher's maxim be, "Little theory and much application." 
The important thing is not that the pupil should acquire facil- 
ity in reciting paradigms, rules, and exceptions, but it is that 
the learner should acquire facility in understanding and using 
the language. Right forms must be so held in mind that they 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 57 

come naturally from tongue and pen ; this result will require 
much repetition, which may at times be tedious, but the time 
spent upon the elementary drill will facilitate subsequent steps. 
Teachers should not hasten the pupil to the reading of good lit- 
erature. 

4. Reading Matter : 

Aside from the German-English exercises of the grammar, 
the reading matter of the lirst year should consist of graduated 
texts from a reader. 

5. Translation into English, sight reading : 

It, should not be forgotten that the principal object of this 
branch is to learn to read without translating. 

Between the extremes of atrocious English, which should not be en- 
dured, and the really good English, which is unattainable, there is a 
wide belt of what may be called tolerable English; English which is not 
excellent from a literary point of view, but is at least clear, grammati- 
cal, free from gross improprieties in respect to idiom, and reasonably 
faithful to the meaning of the original. Such tolerable English is all 
that can be expected in the ordinary routine of the class-room. It is, 
however, desirable that the learner become aware that there is a higher 
ideal, and that he have some practice in trying to reach it. To this end 
a passage in German text should occasionally be given out for a care- 
fully prepared written translation, with instructions to take time and 
make the work just as good as possible. Such translations should then 
be criticised by the teacher and compared with one another in the class. 
Attention should be called to the small points of idiom, arrangement, 
choice of words, turn of phrase, etc., which make up the difference be- 
tween the tolerable and the excellent. In this way the pupil's literary 
sense will be cultivated ; he will become familiar with the idea of trans- 
lation as an art, and the effect will be to improve gradually the quality 
of his ordinary work. 

6. Reproducive translation into German : 

It will be observed that the program of work for the second year of 
the elementary course provides for practice "in the off-hand reproduc- 
tion, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, of the substance of 
short and easy, selected passages." 

The language of the original should, of course, not be memorized 
verbatim; what is wanted is not an effort of the memory, but an attempt 
to express thought in German forms that are remembered in a general 
way, but not remembered exactly. 



58 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

The foregoing is chiefly a condensation from the Report of 
the Committee on Foreign Languages published with other re- 
ports on College Entrance Requirements by the National Edu- 
cational Association. The report may be had for twenty-five 
cents by addressing Irwin Shepard, Secretary X. E. A., Winona, 
Minn. 

Every teacher of German should study this report thoroughly. 



LATIN. 

The course should include four books of Caesar, which should 
be completed by the end of the second year, seven orations of 
Cicero and six books of Virgil. If Cicero be begun before 
Virgil the latter might be read after lour orations and then be 
followed by the remaining three orations. 

For the first work in Latin it is desirable to place in the 
hands of pupils as concise and simple a statement of the first 
principles as possible. Therefore great care should be used in 
the selection of a text, of which there are many good ones. The 
Beginner's Latin Book by Smiley and Storke (American Book 
Co.) is one of the best. 

The necessity of a thorough acquaintance with the forms 
of the language is so obvious that it would seem superfluous 
to call attention to it here. Yet the fact is that no part of 
Latin preparation is more defective than this. The forms as 
contained in the lesson book or as referred to in the grammar 
must be mastered absolutely. Well-directed memorizing, fol- 
lowed by written exercises, dictation, oral practice and frequent 
reviews, ought to produce good results. 

A good class with a good teacher ought to finish a lesson-book 
in time to do some work preparatory to Caesar in the first year ; 
for in most cases the transition from an elementary book to 
Caesar is too abrupt. If Caesar is to be read immediately the 
teacher must exercise great diligence in anticipating the diffi- 
culties of the advance lesson and striving by every means to 
make smooth the somewhat uneven path. The second book 
of Caesar is easier than the first. The conference report to the 
"Committee of Ten" recommends the use of some easy read- 
ing, such as Clnuhttim. Eutropius or Viri Romae, for this tran- 
sition period. 

The purpose of this study, as pursued in the high school, is 
not to make pupils skillful in writing Latin, but to enable them 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 59 

by use to make the forms and syntax of the language more 
completely their own. The composition of a single Latin sen- 
tence, illustrating certain constructions or idioms of the lan- 
guage, will do more to impress these upon the mind of the 
pupil than half a dozen parsing exercises involving the same 
points. Latin composition may be pursued by devoting one 
or more exercises of each week exclusively to this work ; or, 
by means of daily exercises based upon limited portions of the 
Latin read in class. 

This method has the advantage of securing a more painstak- 
ing daily review than can usually he obtained otherwise. It 
does not, however, cover the ground completely; for many 
special grammatical pit-falls do not occur often in the text of 
Caesar or Cicero. Special drill, therefore, is required in ex- 
ceptional cases. Idle impersonal construction in the passive of 
verbs followed by the dative, conditional sentences in indirect 
discourse, the indicative in the conclusion of conditions con- 
trary to iact with verbs of duty, necessity, etc., and the peri- 
phrastic forms are constructions of the kind referred to. This 
method of teaching Latin composition will require untiring- 
zeal on the part of the teacher and great economy of time in the 
class-room, but it will be rewarded usually by great interest. 

In all instruction in Latin the pupil should be made to realize 
that the order of the Latin sentence is flexible, subject to con- 
siderations of emphasis and euphony. What the pupil posi- 
tively learns about Latin order must depend on what the teacher 
knows or feels concerning it, for it cannot be learned from rules. 

TRANSLATION. 

An exact and idiomatic rendering into English of the thought 
of a difficult Latin sentence is perhaps the chief visible result of 
Latin instruction, and teachers who are not working to secure 
that end have in a measure lost sight of the goal. Literal trans- 
lations are often indispensable by way of explanation and for 
purposes of illustration, but if they are not at the same time idio- 
matic, they should always be accompanied by idiomatic render- 
ings. "Translation English" is not only painful to hear but it 
destroys the linguistic sensibility which all instruction should 
foster ami gives most grotesque conceptions of Roman literature. 

Not only should good English be insisted on ahvays, but some 
effort, varying with the maturity of the class or of the individual 
pupil, should be made to produce the style of the author trans- 
lated. The succession of Latin authors read in school is all that 



GO WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

could be wished in this regard. The straightforward narrative 
style of Caesar may be reproduced without difficulty by pupils 
who have not read much in English. In connection with Cicero, 
translations may be improved and made more spirited by bring- 
ing out some characteristics of oratorical English, with examples 
from speeches of American orators. Milton and Spenser stud- 
ied in the high school ought to contribute to better translations 
in Virgil. 

The Latin authors read in the high school afford a consid- 
erable field for the study of literary form and historical events. 
This should not be neglected. For example, in Cicero the 
pupil should be required to analyze the argument of the speeches 
read and thus to obtain some conception of the form of an 
ancient oration. It is a good plan to call on some member 
of the class each day to give orally a synopsis of the review 
or advance lesson, and at the conclusion of any Work the ar- 
gument should be carefully read, so that each'pupil shall carry 
away a definite idea of the work as a whole, both in respect 
to form and contents. Every high school library should be 
provided with a copy of Froude's Caesar, Trollope's Cicero and 
Sellar's Virgil (Macmillan) — the last perhaps more especially 
for the teacher. By judicious reference to them much can be 
done to stimulate and maintain a living interest in the men 
whose works are read. 

Two pamphlets by Professor William Gardner Hale entitled 
"Aims and Methods of Classical Study/' and 'The Art of Read- 
ing Latin" (Grinn & Co.), will be found stimulating and sug- 
gestive. The Art of Reading Latin sets forth admirably the 
only natural and rational method of studying a Latin sentence, 
and even if the teacher does not attempt to put into practice 
all the suggestions there given, a careful study of the paper 
will do much to give him a truer conception of the way in which 
Latin is to be read and therefore to be taught. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 61 



LITERATURE. 



Introduction: The study of literature is not the study of the 
history of literature with the occasional poem or fragment of 
prose thrown in. To stuff the mind with the biographies of 
authors, and to memorize the list of books they have written 
is not to study literature. Instead of reading about authors 
and studying a text-book on literature, the student must come 
into direct contact with the literature and read for himself. The 
practice in teaching literature has been to take a few pieces 
of literature and to spend much time in analyzing each one. 
The meaning of every word is studied and its derivation traced, 
figures are pointed out and named, historical facts verified, 
accuracy of scientific facts tested, every allusion traced until 
in this process of vivisection the real life has been lost. Great 
pieces of literature have lived not because they furnish fine 
fields for mental gymnastics, but because they reveal the deep- 
est, the truest, the most beautiful, the best in life. Literature 
is an expression of the soul of humanity, of the whole range 
of human experiences, and the study of literature should con- 
sist in the interpretation of the experiences, the thoughts, the 
feelings, and the aspirations of the race. Dr. J. TV. Stearns 
says: — "Interpretation should consist in such things as the 
artistic presentation of character types, the setting forth of the 
play of circumstances in moulding character, the unfolding of 
the consequences of actions and the might of destiny, the mani- 
festations of the spiritual meaning of material things reveal- 
ing the charm of beauty in things common, touching into life 
the springs of noble emotions in us, filling us with a sense of 
the deeper meanings of life, and enlarging our sympathies." 



G2 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



AIMS IN TEACHING LITERATURE. 

The aims in teaching literature should be to inculcate a love 
and desire for reading, resulting in the formation of the habit 
of reading; to interpret life; to give power and information;, 
To uplift by giving new ideals and inspirations ; and to cultivate 
a taste for good reading. The pupil ought to be taught how to 
read, how to handle a book, how to use an index, how to read 
to a topic, and how to read by skipping. 



POETRY. 

Poetry portrays the emotional side of life. It breathes the 
joys, hopes, fears, sorrows, strivings, and aspirations of human- 
ity. It gives us the divine tire of genius, teaches us the love 
of the beautiful, swings us into the world of imagination, and 
encourages us to do and to be. A poem is a work of art to 
be admired, and enjoyed, and felt. Music, beauty, imagination,, 
passion, insight, inspiration, and faith are the essential char- 
acteristics of poetry and these are .what should be studied. 

Music: Read the poetry to the pupils so as to bring out 
the music and let them read it that way. They will soon find 
that music is varied, sometimes smooth and flowing; again, 
rough and broken ; sometimes light and quick, again heavv and 
slow moving. Analyzing a number of poems by a single poet 
they will find that there is a sameness about his way of sing- 
ing; that Tennyson's music is varied, polished and exquisite; 
that Bryant's music is deep, full, and resounding; that Riley's 
is dainty and light. Comparisons of different poets will lead 
to a better understanding of each one. 

Beauty: Ask the pupils to select the beautiful pictures and 
read them to the class. Ask them to see these pictures as they 
are read, and encourage them to admire. Let them gather 
together the beautiful pictures painted by the poets and com- 
pare, and they will find that Scott's pictures are highly colored ; 
that Tennyson gives us exquisite landscapes and beautiful pen 
portraits ; that Byron paints nature in her grandeur ; that Low- 
ell's pictures are full of life and beauty. A careful study of 
how these pictures are painted will bring out that some are 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 63 

in detail, some in broad strokes, some clearly outlined and some 
only suggested. 

Passion, inspiration^ insight, truth and faith: Call for the 
passages the pupils like best and nearly always they will se- 
lect those expressing passion, inspiration, insight, truth, and 
faith. Because they select them, be sure they appreciate them 
to some degree. As they read more and more, they will come 
to recognize, name, and understand these characteristics, and 
to see that they differ in different poets. Do not expect learned 
discussions. Get them to give themselves up to these in- 
fluences. They will read Shelley and Milton and exercise their 
imaginations. They wall learn that some poets look deep into 
the human heart and see beyond the symbol, the essence, and 
that is insight. They will learn to look for the poet's faith 
in God and humanity. 



THE NOVEL. 

Hamilton Mabie says : — "The novel is contemporaneous with 
a new and deepening consciousness of human relationship and 
obligation. Today we feel more distinctly than ever before 
the pervasive influence of other lives upon our lives. We are 
weighted down as never before by a sense of our incalculable 
obligations to our fellows. We no longer think of ourselves 
as alone, but always in' the thick of relationships of every kind 
and quality, — in the solitude of our own souls we are conscious 
of the whole conscious, sufTering world about us/' 

Fiction : Fiction portrays life on the social side as no other 
form of literature does. Social conditions, standards, forces, 
and conventions are revealed, and the problem of the individual 
life is worked out with full recognition of countless social in- 
fluences. 

Special aims in studying fiction : — 

a. To enjoy the story. 

b. To picture life portrayed. 

c. To judge character portrayed. 

d. To trace character development. 

To picture life portrayed study the things which go to make 
up the life of any community, — descriptions of the environment, 
character as types, appearance and dress, food, homes and sur- 
roundings, amusements, religion, occupation, education, and 
language. . 



04 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

To judge character portrayed: Character is revealed through 
description and analysis by the author, by conversation, by ac- 
tion, by feeling and attitude of characters toward each other. 
Judgments upon the individual character and upon lines of 
action should be formed from a study of the foregoing points. 
Conditions, standards, and forces which influence the character 
for good or evil should be considered. 

To trace character development: Trace the changes which 
take place in the character and study the conditions, ideals, 
and forces surrounding the character which bring about the 
changes. 



ESSAYS AKD PROSE COMPOSITIONS. 

Essays and prose compositions reveal the thought of man- 
kind. 

The special aims: 

a. To get the author's thought. 

b. To think with the author by seeing relations. 

c. To knit the knowledge gained to what is already known. 

To get the author 's idea: The first step is to get the general 
idea of the composition, then the parts upon which the general 
idea is based. If description, — the things which go to make up 
the picture ; if narrative, — the events which form the narration ; 
if argumentative, — the points on which the author has based 
his argument, etc. 

To think with the author: In seeing the relation of these 
parts to each other and to the general idea, — discriminating, 
comparing, judging, — the pupil is thinking with the author. 

To knit new knowledge to the old: The student has been 
using the knowledge he already has to interpret the new knowl- 
edge, but he ought consciously to bring up what he already 
knows on the subject, gained through experience or previous 
reading. For instance^ he has just read Carlyle's idea of a 
great man ; he compares with Emerson's idea as gained in pre- 
vious reading, — also with Lowell's idea. These ideas together 
with his o.wn knowledge and his experience of great men con- 
stitute his body of knowledge of great men, which he will use 
in gaining new knowledge on the subject which new knowledge 
will in turn be compared with the old. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 65 



LITERARY MERIT. 

Judgments in literary merit can only be formed after wide 
reading and many comparisons. As the student makes these 
comparisons he is building up his conception of style. Is the 
author clear in his statements? What of his skill in narration 
and illustration? Are his descriptions vivid? How does ho 
interpret nature ? Are his men and women real flesh and blood ? 
How does this composition compare with others of the same 
kind? With others by the same anther? 



WHAT TO READ. 

"If literature be the life of the people, it should also pre- 
pare for that kind of life in which the child is forced to live, 
immediately after passing out of school. While there may be 
room for discussion as to the style in which thought should be 
expressed, it is beyond dispute that the clearest writers, those 
who use the language to express unmistakably what they mean, 
those who deal with subjects that are nearest to the daily life 
of the people themselves, ought to become a part of the* mental 
furnishing of each high school pupil." — J. M. Greenwood. 

Lists of novels, essayists, and poets in the library should 
be made out, from which pupils may select what they wish 
to read. . At least six novels should be read, each by a dif- 
ferent author, part of them portraying life and part of them 
character. The students should read enough poetry by six dif- 
ferent poets and essays by six different essayists to get a fair 
idea of their way of writing, as well as to get the uplift and 
] tower which come from reading. It is best to have all in 
t.'iO class reading novels, poetry, or essays at the same time, — 
though after the first two or three pieces of literature read to- 
gether to show how to study, it is best to have students read 
different works of literature in any one line. The library law 
providing for libraries in the schools now extends to high schools 
in cities of the fourth class, so that schools ought to have books 
to carry on this work. In purchasing books the law provides 
that they must be selected from lists furnished by the state 
superintendent, and attention is called to the High School List. 
Teachers will find the notes on the books in this list especially 
valuable in teaching literature and directing literary readings. 



6(j WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



PLACE OF HISTORY OF LITERATURE,— BIOGRA- 
PHY A1S T D LITERARY CRITICISM. 

History of literature: A short course in history of litera- 
n re, — taking the history in great epochs, — these epochs based 
upon the kind of literature produced, — may be of value in the 
study of literature. The history should serve as a framework 
to keep the reading organized and to help the student to get 
some idea of the entirety of literature. In the study of the 
history of literature some of the most typical pieces of literature 
might be read in a cursory way, — see high school list. It will 
scarcely be best to attempt anything before the period of Shakes- 
peare. 

The history of literature should come in the last term's work 
in literature. 

Place of biography: When a student becomes so filled with 
the writings of any author that his personality becomes of in- 
terest then the biography may be read with profit. But the 
biography of an author should always be approached through 
his writing. In the literary production the writer has given 
us the best of himself. . 

Place of the text-booh and literary criticism: After the stu- 
dent has read and made his judgments it is well to compare 
these judgments with those of critics, as found in his text-book, 
periodicals, and essays in criticism. The text-book should 
always be an aid in the work, not an end. When the study of 
literature is confined to the memorizing of the facts found in a 
text-book, the text-book is harmful. The text-book shows the 
scope of the subject, is a suggestive index for study, shows where 
things may be found, and brings together in compact form judg- 
ments on authors in their writings. 

College entrance requirements: Essays, poetry, and fiction 
indicated as college entrance requirements, should fall in their 
proper place with other compositions of the same kind, — reserv- 
ing those intended for more intensive study till the last part of 
the course. , i 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 67 



THE RECITATION. 

In beginning the work in any form of literature it is well to 
take one 'book or piece of literature, and for teachers and pupils 
to work together until the pupils gain some insight into the right 
way of reading. 

For fiction is suggested: Ivanhoe — a picture of past life. 
Silas Marner — a study of character development. Rise of 
Silas Lapham — a study of American life, a novel of theme and 
a novel of character study. 

For poetry is suggested: Vision of Sir Launfal, Lady of the 
Lake, The Princess, or a similar long poem which furnishes suffi- 
cient variety to cover work outlined under poetry. 

For essays is suggested: Hunting of the Deer, or any short 
essay from pupils' readers. 

Then let the pupil select from a given list of hooks such as 
he will like to read, — the teacher guiding the choice through the 
pupils' interests. In his study and recitations he should fol- 
low the models, studied with the teacher. 

The work in reading and in class should he definite and clear. 
The student's judgments should he based upon facts he can point 
out. It is not enough that he says the music is smooth and 
flowing — he must recite or read the portions he considers 
"smooth and flowing" and tell what makes them so. If he call 
a poem imaginative he must prove his statement by selecting 
the imaginative portions. 

The judgments should be his own and based upon his own 
reading. 

As the student progresses the study of literature may become 
more and more intensive but it should never degenerate into 
parsing and analyzing. 

The value of the study of literature will be greatly enhanced 
by the constant, memorizing of such portions of literature as have 
appealed to the student in his reading, and certain recitations 
should be devoted to the reciting of memory gems. 

Remember, that in all this work the teacher must know as 
far as possible what is in the pupil's mind — for the pupil can 
only understand and feel by the assistance of what he has already 
experienced, felt, and learned. He can only assimilate new 
ideas by means of his present ones. Every new relation of the 
idea helps to correct, clear, and extend the meaning, and instead 



68 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

of trying to get the whole meaning in its one relation it is often 
better to .read on, getting at truth in different relations and 
deepening and enriching experience at the same time. 

It is impossible for a student at any one time of his life to 
comprehend the whole of a piece of literature, no matter how 
much time is spent in studying it, 



LITERARY HEADINGS. 

Special Aims: 

a. To learn how In read and to utilize that knowledge in 

practice 

b. To extend student's knowledge of books and to develop a 

taste for and a love of good literature. 

c. Through his reading to put the student in touch with life 

around him by making him interested in what people of 
the world are interested in. 

NATUEE OF THE BEADING CUKSOKY. 

Scudder says, "There can be no manner of question that 
between the ages of six and sixteen a large part of the best litera- 
ture of the world may be read/' Which means that in the grades 
as well as in the high school this cursory reading must be carried 
on. Cursory reading does not mean skimming through a book 
and throwing it aside with no further thought — it means rapid 
reading to get the pith and paint — which implies skill in the, 
right way of reading and in the use of hooks. Says John Bur- 
roughs, "The way they teach literature in the schools and col- 
leges is calculated to kill any love for it. It seems to me I 
would lose my love of Shakespeare if I had to dissect him, and 
find out the meaning of every word and expression. I want 
to ride buoyantly over the waves. I want to feel the wind and 
the motion — not talk about them. If I had to teach literature, 
I hardly know myself how I would do it. You can't by bearing 
on — you can't by mere intellectual force on a book show its 
charm. It appeals to the emotions. You have got to approach 
it in a different way. You must be fluid. All I should hope 
to do would be to give the student the key to the best literature. 
We would read books together. We would read good books and 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. CO 

we would read poor books. I would say, 'well, we won't talk; 
wo will read and see. Here is a poor book — don't you see ? It's 
overdrawn — 't isn't delicate !' I would get at books in their sen- 
timent and general character, not in their details. If you tear 
it all in to bits, yon haven't the thing itself any more." 

LINES <>F READING. 

Literary reading should include all lines of reading. So far 
as possible the pupils should be guided in their choice of reading 
through their interests. Lists of books which are in the library 
should be made out in the various lines of reading from which 
the pupils may select the books they wish to read. It is not 
necessary that all the pupils in a class read the same book, or 
books on the same subject. Nor is it necessary that a pupil read 
a book from cover to cover. Many times only a portion of a 
book will appeal to a pupil — or be of value to him. This 
is especially so in science books, books of poetry, and books 
where a part meets some interest, started in the regular school 
work; as, a part of a book of history which relates to a topic in 
the history lesson. 

GUIDING A PUPIL IX IIIS CHOICE OF BEADING THROUGH HIS 

INTERESTS. 

The teacher cannot guide the pupils' reading unless she makes 
a careful study of their interests and needs. She must lead 
them from the interests of today to higher and wider interests 
and utilize at every step interests gained in other lines of work. 
She must take advantage of interests closely related to old 
interests, or those naturally growing out of old interests; 
interests created by pupils' environment, as Indian relics in 
Wisconsin; interests in current events coming to his notice; as, 
a circus in town, the Spanish-American War, the celebration of 
Washington's Birthday^ etc., etc.; interests created by another's 
interests; as reading a book because another says it is good. 
Make the pupil's present interest the basis which shall determine 
Lis present line of reading. If he is interested in fiction only, 
then give him a list of fiction from which he may select a book 
to read. By questioning, by directing his attention, or arousing 
his curiosity, he may be made interested in some character, 
place, fact, or event in the book, and this interest may be made 
the basis for future reading. Thus a pupil reading Ivanhoe 



71) WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

may be led to read English history by arousing an interest in 
Richard, the Lion-Hearted. Again, a pupil who has road a story 
of Holland may bo led to road a hook of travel in Holland, 
because of interest aroused in the manners and customs of that 
country. If the pupils' present interest is in history, science, 
or other lines of work, a similar plan may be pursued. The 
work will have to be largely individual. 

THE WAY TO GUIDE THE PUPIL IX ILLS READING. 

The teacher should have clearly in mind the way to read the 
different kinds of literature as outlined in the Manual, under 
the topic "Literature." By questioning, by directing atten- 
tion to what is essential, and by directing discussions, lead the 
pupils into the right way of reading. Remember that the work- 
is new to the pupils and do not expect too much at first. Suppose 
the class has been reading fiction portraying life. The teacher 
cannot expect them to cover all the points in the outline (see 
p. 63 this Manual), but will ask for a single point — as descrip- 
tions of characters in the book which may be considered as types. 
The student may be asked to be alfle to report on homes and 
surroundings, and amusements for the next recitation. Suc- 
cessive topics may be taken up with the same books or others 
until the pupil has a fairly good idea of what he is expected 
to get out of the novel of life. After considerable practice he 
will be able to discuss all the points in a single book. (See 
Literature — Fiction, Poetry, Essay, in this Manual.) 

THE RECITATION. 

• For convenience the classes should be divided into groups — 
the smaller, the better; each group meeting the teacher twice 
a week for forty or forty-five minutes to report. 

The recitations should consist of reports of what has been 
read, and these reports should be oral. The recitation ought 
to be an exchange of impressions and feelings, 'a talking over of 
what has been found enjoyable, good, beautiful, and helpful. 
The pupil makes his report as a contribution to the whole and 
stands ready to answer questions by his class-mates and teachers ; 
to discuss with them what he has found; and to compare his 
judgments with theirs. Thus all take part in the recitation 
and attention is secured. The reports should not be too much 
in detail and should follow in general the plan of reading out- 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 71 

lined in Literal are. It is not necessary that the students in any 
one group read and report on the same book or on different books 
in the same subject. 

UTILIZE THE MATERIAL GAINED IX THIS READING IN OTHER LINES 

OF WORK. 

In the geography class the descriptions found in fiction and 
in books of travel may be used to advantage to help the pupils 
see the places studied. In the history class descriptions of life' 
from historical fiction will help the pupil to vizualize history 
and to get the spirit of the times. Biography, will make history 
real, besides giving to the pupil ideals of character and action. 
In the class in science the student may he led to read the books 
of science which will broaden and make more interesting his 
stndy of science. 

Suppose the pupils are studying the topic in history "Re- 
sults of the Norman Conquest in English History." There is no 
book that will give them a better idea of life in England at that 
time than Scott's "Ivanhoe." Under the topic "Character of 
(lie Saxons and Normans" — ask those pupils who have read 
Ivanhoe to describe the characters of Athelstane, Rowena, and 
Oedric, as types of Saxons; and the Norman nobles Boeuf, 
Fitzurse, de Braey, Bois — Guilbert, as types of Norman 
character. Results in language will be shown in the conversa- 
tion between Gurth and Wamba. Results in literature will ba 
shown in the French verses and Anglo-Saxon ballads. Condi- 
tion in religion will be shown by the conditions of the church 
and the intolerance of all classes as portrayed in the novel, etc., 
etc. 

By calling for these topics the pupils may be led to read por- 
tions of the book more carefully, and with a. young or inexperi- 
enced class it may be well to refer to the novel by pages under 
each topic. Not all of the literary reading is for the purpose 
of supplementary school work. Care should be taken not to 
make the work a drudgery, but a delight. 

RECORDS. 

A careful record of what pupils read should be kept. It is 
a good plan to have pupils when they have read a book write on 
a sheet of paper the title of the book, the author, date of reading, 



72 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



and things in the hook which they have liked best. The follow- 
ing form has been found practical : 

NAME OF PUPIL- CLASS. 



Title. 


Author. 


When read. 


Remarks. 


Prince and Pauper. 


D. Clemen? 

Sir Walter Scott. 

Thomas Carlyle. 


Jan. 1, 1900.. 
Jan. 20, 1900.. 

Feb. 4,1900.. 


A very interesting story about 
two boys who change places. 


Nobility of Labor... 


the Lion Hearted, also about 
knights in England long ago. 

Shows that all labor is honor- 
able, be it high or low, with 
head or hand. 



If these sheets are carefully kept they will show what a stu- 
dent has read during his four years in the high school. Many 
times "the remarks" are a key to the pupil's interests and tell 
what he has gained from his reading. 



PART III. 



Laws and Comments. 



71 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



STATUTES RELATING TO FREE HIGH SCHOOL?, 



How established — Single districts. 

Section 490. Any town, village or city, school district or 
sub-district which contains within its limits an incorporated 
village or which has a graded school of not less than two depart- 
ments may establish and maintain not exceeding two high schools 
in the manner and with the privileges herein provided ; but no 
such school shall be established or maintained unless twenty-five 
persons of school age, resident of the town, city, village, school 
district or sub-district, pass a satisfactory examination in the 
branches required to be taught in the common schools and are 
prepared to begin a high school course. The question of estab- 
lishing such schools may be submitted by the town, district, sub- 
district or village board or common council to the legally quali- 
fied voters at any annual or special meeting or election upon 
written resolution therefor proposed for adoption; provided, 
notice of such purpose, embodying such resolution, he given in 
the manner provided for notifying a special district meeting, 
town meeting or charter election. In ihe case of a sub-district 
the meeting may be called by the clerk thereof. The vote shall 
be taken by ballot and canvassed according to the statutes for 
conducting elections in such municipality, those ballots in favor 
being written or printed, "for high school ;"* those opposed', 
"against high school.' 1 ' If the resolution be adopted, such town, 
district, sub-district, village or city shall constitute a high school 
district. But this section shall not apply to high schools already 
established. 

How established — Joint districts. 

Section 491 as amended by Section 1, Chapter 57, Laws of 
1899. Two or more adjoining towns or school districts, or one 
or more towns or school districts and an incorporated village or 
city; when the same together will make a district of contiguous 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. ?5 

territory; may unite in establishing and maintaining any such 
high school. The resolution proposing the same shall be ap- 
proved and submitted and the notice of election signed by at least 
a majority of the supervisors of each town, the directors of each 
school district, the common council of such city and trustees of 
such village, if any, and the election shall be notified and con- 
ducted in each town, school district, city or village as provided 
in the preceding section. iSuch resolution shall not be adopted 
unless a majority of the votes cast in each such town, school dis- 
trict, city or village be in favor thereof. The votes shall be can- 
vassed at, the iirst election, and all subsequent elections in the 
several towns as at town meetings, in the several school districts 
as at annual school district meetings, in the city, if any, as at a 
charter election, and in tin; village, if any, as at village elections ; 
and the supervisors of the several towns, directors of said school 
districts, common council of such city and trustees of such village 
shall, within one week alter such election, meet and canvass the 
votes and certify the result to the town clerk of each town, the 
clerk of each school district, the clerk of such city and to the vil- 
lage clerk of such village. If such resolution be adopted, the 
town, or towns, school district or school districts ami city and Vil- 
lage, so voting, shall constitute a joint high school district. 

Certificate. 

Section 491a. Whenever a free high school shall have been 
established and maintained as provided in sections 490 and ft* 1 
for at least three months ami the proper board shall have made 
the report required by section 496 in order to obtain the aid fur- 
nished by the state in maintaining free high schools, they shall 
append thereto a certificate that such school is established and 
maintained in one or more towns or in one or more towns and a 
village wherein no graded school exists. 

State aid. 

Section 4916. Upon receiving the reports and appended 
certificate provided for in section 496, it shall be the duty of the 
state superintendent to make a separate and distinct class of the 
schools thus established and maintained in towns or in towns and 
villages where no graded schools exist, and each such school shall 
lie entitled to receive from the general fund of the state, annu- 
ally, one-half the amount actually expended for instruction 
therein; and said superintendent shall fix the amount to be paid 



70 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

to each of said high schools and certify the same to the secretary 
of state at the time and in the maimer he is now required to fix 
and certify to him the .amount to he paid to high school districts. 
On' such certificate, at any time after the first day of December, 
the same shall he paid to the district treasurer out of the state 
treasury; hut the whole amount so paid shall not exceed twenty- 
five thousand dollars in any one year to this class of free high 
schools, and if more is demanded by such districts they shall be 
paid proportionally. The secretary of state shall annually in- 
clude and apportion in the state tax all such sums as shall have 
been so paid, in addition to the amount authorized to be paid in 
aid of free high schools by sec! ion 496 and in addition to all 
other sums to be levied for the year. 

District officers. 

Section 492. The officers of each such district shall he a di- 
rector, treasurer and clerk, whose term shall he each three years, 
beginning with the annual town meeting, and until his successor 
shall have been chosen ; provided, that at the first election the 
clerk shall lie chosen for one year, the treasurer for two years and 
the director for three years, and all of said officers may he chosen 
first at the same election at which the question of establishing a 
high school is submitted, to take their offices if the resolution 
therefor he adopted. Thereafter such officers shall he elected at 
the annual town meeting or charter election. The votes cast 
shall be canvassed and the result declared and certified as pro- 
vided in the preceding sections. But in all cities not under a 
county superintendent which now constitute free high school dis- 
tricts or which shall hereafter adopt the resolution provided. for 
in section 41)0 and become free high school districts, the hoard of 
education in each such city shall he the high school hoard and the 
city treasurer shall he ex officio the treasurer of the high school 
district unless the hoard of education embrace a treasurer; and 
in all districts maintaining a graded school of not less than two 
departments which now constitute free high school districts or 
which shall hereafter adopt said resolution, the district board in 
each shall he the high school board and the district treasurer shall 
be the treasurer of the high school district. Whenever a sub- 
district shall vote to establish and maintain a free high school, 
such sub-district shall constitute a free high school district, shall 
elect a free high school board, the clerk for one year, the treas- 
urer for two years and the director for three years ; thereafter 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 77 

one officer shall be elected annually in place of the one whose 
term expires at the annual meeting of such sub-district, and such 
high school hoard shall perform all the duties and have the same 
authority as high school boards in towns or districts. The clerks 
shall certify all taxes levied for high school purposes to the town, 
city or village clerk, who shall apportion the same upon the tax- 
able property of the sub-district, and the treasurer of such mu- 
nicipality shall collect the taxes thus apportioned and pay over 
the same to the high school treasurer and return the delinquent 
taxes to the county treasurer as in other cases. Where a high 
school district consists of two or more towns or a village and one 
or more towns, the officers thereof shall he elected for the same 
terms as in other districts by joint vote of the town hoards of 
such towns or the board or hoards of the town or towns and vil- 
lage which have united in forming such district. Such town 
boards shall hold their first meeting to elect officers at two o'clock 
P. M. on the first Tuesday following the town meeting at the 
office of the clerk of the town having the largest population, and 
thereafter shall meet for such purpose at the same time at such 
place as may he determined upon. The first meeting of the 
hoard or hoards of a town or towns with the hoard of any village 
which forms such a district shall he held at, two o'clock P. M. 
on the first Tuesday next following the village election at the 
office of the village clerk; all subsequent meetings shall be held 
at the same time at such place as may he determined upon. A 
majority of all the members of such hoards shall he necessary 
to constitute 1 a quorum. The secretary of the meetings of such 
boards shall certify the names of the officers of the district 
elected thereat- to all the clerks of towns and the clerk of the vil- 
lage in the district. The officers so elected shall have the same 
authority, he charged with the same duties and he under the 
same liabilities as other officers of such districts. 

Officers' duties ; other statutes apply. 

Section d'.).'5. Such officers shall constitute the high school 
board, and shall conduct the affairs of the high school district on 
the same general plan provided for a school district, and possess, 
with respect to such high school district, all the powers and be 
charged with all the duties conferred and imposed by these 
statutes on the district officers and district hoard of a school dis- 
trict applicable to such high school district; the treasurer shall 
give a like bond, to be approved and filed in a similar manner. 



78 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

The high school district clerk shall make a similar report to that 
required by section 402, omitting the first subdivision- The 
board may grade such school and establish the branches of study 

to be taught therein, under the advice of the state superintendent. 
Every forfeiture and punishment for neglect or violation of duty 
in a school district officer shall apply to a high school district 
officer for like neglect or violation. The reports of free high 
schools iii cities not under a county superintendent shall be in- 
cluded in the reports from such cities to the slate superintendent. 

Schools free; teachers' qualifications. 

Section 404. All such high schools shall he free to all pu- 
pils resident in the district. Every principal of such school 
shall, in addition to his qualifications as teacher of a common 
school, be a graduate of some university, college or normal 
school, hold a state certificate or pass an examination in the 
studies required to he taught in any such school ; provided, the 
state certificates authorized by law and the certificates authorized 
by section V.UUi shall qualify their holders both as principals 
and as teachers of common schools; and each principal and 
assistant teacher in a free high school shall he eligible to teach 
only on approval of his certificate by the state superintendent; 
and the high school board or boards of education having charge 
of such schools shall determine, with the advice and consent of 
such superintendent, the course of study and minimum standard 
of qualification for admission to the same. 

Section 458b. * * " x " Neither a limited state certificate 
nor a certificate from the elementary course of a normal school 
shall qualify the holder as principal of a free high school having 
a four years course of study. 

Taxes, apportionment of. 

Section 495. The high school board shall annually, on or 
before the second Monday in September, meet and determine the 
amount necessary to be raised by tax for the support of such high; 
school, and certify the same to the proper town, city, or village 
clerk ; if a joint high school district, they shall certify to the 
clerk of each town or to such clerk and the village clerk the pro- 
portionate amount thereof to be raised by such town or village, 
such proportion to be determined according to the total valua- 
tion of all the taxable property therein as equalized by the 
boards of review, statements of which shall, as soon as the as- 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 79 

sesement is complete, be sent by the respective town or village 
clerks to the clerk of such district. Such tax shall be appor- 
tioned on the next t;ix roll by such clerk or other officer making 
the same, and collected and returned as other taxes, and paid to 
the high school district treasurer. Such moneys shall be paid 
out only on orders drawn and countersigned as prescribed in 
case, of school districts. Any town which is in a single high 
school district may, by resolution adopted at the annual town 
meeting, limit the amount to he raised for high school purposes 
during such year. In case of a. joint high school district, the, 
town boards of the several towns or of the town and village or 
towns and village embraced may, by a joint resolution adopted 
by all such boards before the first day of July, likewise limit the 
amount to be raised therein. 

State aid, how obtained. 

Section 496 as amended by Chapter 214. Laws of 1899. 
Any high school district which shall have established a free high 
school according to the provisions of these statutes, and shall 
have maintained the same for not less than three months in any 
school year, shall he entitled to receive from the general fund 
of the state annually one-half the amount actually expended for 
instruction in its high school during such year over and above 
the amount required by law to be expended for common school 
purposes, but, not to exceed in one year five hundred dollars to 
one district; provided, this limitation shall not apply to the 
class of high schools designated in section 401a. To obtain 
such aid the high school board, or in cities not under a county 
superintendent, the president and secretary of the board of 
education and the treasurer, shall, on or before the' first clay of 
November, report in duplicate to the state superintendent, under 
their oaths, the amount actually expended for instruction during 
the previous school year, specifying the several items thereof, 
with the date and the object of each fully. Thereupon said 
superintendent shall fix the amount to be paid such district and 
certify the same to the secretary of state, with one of such reports 
annexed; provided, the state superintendent may withhold such 
certificate from any district for reasons based upon failure to 
comply with the law relating to free high schools, which 
reason he shall transmit to the school board thereof on or before 
the thirtieth day of the next succeeding June. On such 
certificate, at any time after the first day of December, the 



80 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

certified amount shall be paid to the district treasurer out of the. 
state treasury. The secretary of state shall annually include 
and apportion in the state tax all such sums as shall have been 
so paid. Whenever, by any neglect or omission, any free high 
school shall fail to have apportioned to it its share of state aid, 
the state superintendent may, after the time hereinbefore fixed 
for such apportionment by him, fix an amount ten per centum 
less than the amount which such school would have been entitled 
to had it complied with the provisions of this section, and cer- 
tify the same to the secretary of state with the report of such 
district annexed thereto, and the secretary of state shall there- 
upon draw his warrant for such amount or amounts in favor 
of such district. The whole amount annually paid under the 
provisions of this section shall not exceed seventy-five thousand 
dollars, and if more be demanded by such districts they shall 
be paid proportionally ; provided, that if the whole amount auth- 
orized to be paid annually in aid of free high schools in towns 
having no graded schools by section 491b is not demanded or 
expended under the provisions of that section., then the unex- 
pended balance of the amount therein annually authorized to be 
paid in aid of such schools may be added to and apportioned 
among the free high schools provided for in section 400 and 491 ; 
but no more than one hundred thousand dollars shall be appor- 
tioned to both classes of schools in any one year. 

Supervision and course of study. 

Section - 40 6a. The state superintendent shall prepare a 
course or courses of study suitable to be pursued in free high 
schools, publish the same, and furnish them upon application, 
lie shall exercise such personal supervision and make such per- 
sonal inspection of the work of all such schools as they seem to 
require and the other duties of his office may warrant ; he shall 
examine or cause to be examined all teachers of high schools 
required by law to pass special examinations to qualify them for 
teaching in high schools, and grant certificates to such as pass 
examinations satisfactorily, which certificates shall be in such 
form and for such time as he may prescribe, and shall authorize 
the holder to teach in such special place or places, or in the whole 
state, as the qualifications of the candidate may warrant. The 
course of study herein authorized to be prepared shall include in- 
struction in the theory and art of teaching, and the organization, 
management and course of study of ungraded schools, and all 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 81 

examinations shall cover those subjects. Said superintendent 

shall furnish suitable blanks for annual and special reports for 
all such schools, which shall require returns as to the number, 
age and sex of all pupils enrolled, the number in each class or 
year of the course of study, the number pursuing' English 
branches only, the number completing the course of study each 
year and such other statistics as may be deemed necessary. 

Manual training. 

Section 4 ( Ju7>. Any board having charge of a free high 
school or of a high school having a course of study equivalent to 
the course or courses prescribed by the state superintendent for 
such schools may establish and maintain a department of manual 
training in connection with the school under its management. 
The expense of maintaining such department shall be provided 
for in the same manner as other expenses of maintaining high 
schools, and such department shall be under the management, 
direction ami control of such board. The state superintendent 
shall, so far as his other duties may warrant, give such informa- 
tion ami assistance as may seem necessary in organizing and 
maintaining such departments, and in arranging schemes and 
outlines of work; and with the aid of the inspector of high 
schools shall have the general supervision of all manual training 
departments established under this section; shall from time to 
time inspect the same, make such recommendations relating to 
their management as he may deem necessary, and make such 
report thereon as shall give full information concerning their 
number, character and efficiency. The state superintendent 
shall establish a standard of qualification for all teachers in such 
department, and may grant special certificates to such applicants 
as are fully qualified to instruct in special lines of manual work, 
which certificates shall be in such form and tor such time as he 
may prescribe, and shall be regarded as qualifying the holders 
thereof to teach in any manual training department. 

Manual training schools. 

Section 496c, as amended by Section 1, Chapter 273, Laws 
of 1899. Any high school whose course of study or outline of 
work in manual training has been approved by the state superin- 
tendent, and whose teacher has been qualified may, upon appli- 
cation, be placed upon an approved list of schools maintaining 
6 



g2 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 

manual training departments. A school once entered upon such 
list mav remain there and be entitled to state aid so long as the 
scope and character of its work are maintained in such manner 
as to meet the approval of such superintendent. On the first 
day of July in each year the clerk of each school hoard main- 
taining a school on the approved list or the city superintendent 
of any city where such an approved school is maintained, shall 
report to the state superintendent in such form as may be re- 
quired, setting forth the facts relating to the cost of maintain- 
ing the manual training department thereof, the character of 
the work done, the number and names of teachers employed, and 
the length of time such department was maintained during the 
preceding year. And upon the receipt of such report, if it shall 
appear that the department has been maintained in a satisfactory 
manner for a period of not less than six months during the 
year, the said superintendent shall make a. certificate to that 
effect and file it with the secretary of state. Upon receiving 
such certificate the secretary of state shall draw his warrant for 
two hundred and fifty dollars payable to the treasurer of the 
district or corporation maintaining the school; provided, that 
the total amount expended for such purpose shall not exceed 
five thousand dollars in any year. 



WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 83 



FORMS FOR ESTABLISHING FREE HIGH SCHOOLS. 



Form of resolution proposing establishment of a high school. 

In order that the question of establishing and maintaining a 

high school in the town of may be submitted to the electors 

thereof for determination, the following resolution is hereby 
proposed for adoption : 

Resolved, by the town board of the town of , That a high 

school be established and maintained in said town. The town 
clerk is - directed to give notice that said resolution will be sub- 
mitted to a vote at the animal town meeting (or, general elec- 
tion) to he held in said town on the — — day of , 11) — , ( or, 

at a special meeting or election to be held on the day of 

— , L9 — , which the town clerk is hereby required to call upon 
due notice. ) 

I hited this day of , 19 — . 

( Signatures of Hoard.) 

Form of notice that the foregoing resolution will be submitted 

to vote. 

Notice is hereby given to the electors of the town of , 

in the county of , that at a special election which is hereby 

called (or at the animal town meeting or general election) to he 

held in said town on the day of , 1!) — , the following 

resolution will he submitted to the vote of said electors : 

Resolved, etc. [as in the foregoing] and that at said election 
members of the high school hoard will he chosen, to take their 
offices if said resolution he adopted, the clerk for one year, the 
treasurer for two years, and the director for three years; their 
respective terms of office beginning with the annual town meet- 
ing. 

Dated this — — day of , 19 — . 

(Signed) , Town Clerk. 



84 WISCONSIN FREE HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL, 1900. 



No. 50. \ 

Form of certificate to bo forwarded to the stale superintendent 
to secure participation in apportionment to free high -schools. 

This may certify that on the day of , 19 — , the 

Legal voters of the town of [or towns of , where two 

or more towns unite, or of school-district No. , town of 

, where vote is by a school-district, or city, or village] 

adopted a resolution to establish and maintain a free high 
school in said town (or towns, or school-district), and the per- 
sons whose names are hereunto appended have been duly 
elected to the office appended to their names, respectively. 
We further certify that no (or one or more) graded school ex- 
ists in said of . The course of study adopted by 

said high school board for said high school is herewith sub- 
mitted for the approval of the state superintendent and the 
names and examination papers of ■, pupils prepared to en- 
ter-said high school, who are residents of said town (or towns, 
or school district) of , are herewith forwarded for inspec- 
tion. The examination of these pupils was held on the 

day of , 19 — , and was conducted by . 

Dated at — — , this day of , 19 — . 

~) Director. 

■ \- Clerk. 

J Treasurer. 

Note. — With this certificate the examination papers of at least 
twenty-five pupils, residents of the high school district, should 
be forwarded. The character and scope of these examinations 
are commented upon in the high school pamphlet. 



INDEX. 



PACiE 

Admission, requirements for S. 17-19 

Algebra 39-41 

Apparatus 29-31 

Approval of Courses by State Superintendent 9 

Arithmetic 38-39 

Assistants 5-6 

Bookkeeping 43 

Botany 31-34 

Certificates of legal qualifications for High School principals and 

assistants 4-6 

Composition 51 

Constitutional history of the United States 47-48 

Constitution of the United States 48 

Constitution of Wisconsin 49 

Courses of Study 9-16 

Ancient classical 15 

English 11 

English — Three Years 16 

General Science 13 

Latin 14 

Modern Classical 12 

Records 10 

State Superintendent to prepare courses 9 

Elements of agriculture 34 

Employment of teachers without legal qualifications — effect of . . 4 

Examinations 8 

Expressive reading 53 



£(} INDEX. 

PAGE 

Forms 83-S4 

Certificate to secure apportionment S4 

Notice of vote 83 

Resolution proposing establishment 83 

General Suggestions 4-9 

Legal qualifications necessary to validity of contract 4 

Organization 4 

Qualifications of teachers 4-6 

German 54-58 

First year course 54-55 

Second year course 55-58 

Geometry 41-43 

History 44-48 

Constitutional history of the United States 47-48 

Method in teaching history 45-46 

Purpose of instruction 44-45 

Reference books for teachers 46-47 

Introduction 2 

Latin 58-60 

Literary Readings 68-72 

Guiding a pupil in his choice of reading through his interest 69-70 
How to utilize the material gained in this reading in other 

branches 71 

Lines of reading 69 

Nature of the reading — cursory 68-69 

Records 71-72 

Special aims 68 

The recitation 70-71 

The way to guide the pupil in his reading 70 

Literature 61-68 

Aims in teaching 62 

Biography and literary criticism 66 

Essays and prose compositions (34 

History of literature — place of 66 

Literary merit 65 

Poetry 62-63 

The novel 63-64 

The recitation 67-68 

What to read , 65 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Management 6-9 

Principal — relation of, to school and board 6 

Principal — to administer courses as adopted by the board 

and approved by the State Superintendent 7 

Mathematics 38-43 

Algebra 39-41 

Arithmetic 38-39 

Bookkeeping 43 

Geometry 41-43 

Organization of free high schools 74-82 

Physical geography 26-27 

Physics 28-31 

Physiology 24-26 

Political economy 49 

Principal — qualifications of 4-5 

Relation to school and board 6 

To administer courses as adopted by the board and approved 

by the State Superintendent f. 7 

Program of study and recitation 8 

Qualifications of high school teachers 4-6 

Reading — expressive 53 

literary 68-71 

Records 10, 71-72 

Science 22-35 

Botany 31-34 

Elements of agriculture 34 

Physical geography 26-27 

Physics 28-31 

Physiology 24-26 

Psychology 34-35 

Statutes relating to free high schools 74-82 

Certificate of establishment 75 

Course of study and supervision 80 

High school district officers 76 

Joint districts — how established 74 

Manual training 81 

Officers' duties ... 77 



' ^ 



88 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Statutes relating to free high schools — continued. 

Qualifications of teachers 78 

Schools — free 78 

Single districts — how established 74 

State aid 75, 79 

Supervision and course of study 77 (§ 493) 80 

Taxes — apportionment of 78 

Teachers' qualifications 78 

Teachers' qualifications 4-6 

Theory and art of teaching 35-37 

Legal requirement in courses (See p. 9, and Sec. 496a) 80-81 



Library of Congress 
Branch Bindery, 1902 



